Inhibitors of pcsk9 for treatment of lipoprotein metabolism disorders

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure relates to inhibitors of proprotein convertase subtilisin-like/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) for the treatment of lipoprotein metabolism disorders.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/865,661 filed May 4, 2020, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/558,491 filed Sep. 14, 2017, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,688,119, which is a U.S. National Phase of PCT/DK2016/050082 filed Mar. 18, 2016 and which claims priority to Denmark Application No: PA201570839 filed Dec. 21, 2015, Denmark Application No: PA201570623 filed Oct. 2, 2015, and Denmark Application No: PA201570158 filed Mar. 20, 2015, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to inhibitors of proprotein convertase subtilisin-like/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) for the treatment of lipoprotein metabolism disorders.

BACKGROUND

Coronary artery disease caused by atherosclerosis is the leading cause of death in Europe and the US. A major risk factor in the development of atherosclerosis is hypercholesterolemia with an elevated level of cholesterol-carrying low-density-lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol or LDL-C) particles in the circulation. The metabolism of LDL cholesterol particles is highly regulated to balance the synthesis of cholesterol with the dietary intake to serve the need for cholesterol in the body. A key regulator in the turnover of LDL cholesterol is the LDL receptor (LDLR) that mediates cellular uptake of LDL particles and decreases the level of LDL cholesterol in the circulation, as illustrated by patients with familial hypercholesterolemia caused by LDLR deficiency or functional impairment.

A successful strategy to reduce LDL cholesterol plasma levels is to increase the cellular levels of LDLR, and today the most widely used medication to lower LDL cholesterol is statins. Statins inhibit the synthesis of cholesterol and up-regulate the expression of LDLR, thus overall resulting in decreased amounts of circulating LDL cholesterol. However, a considerable number of patients do not respond to or tolerate statins due to various side effects. Furthermore, statins also increase the expression of proprotein convertase subtilisin-like/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) that was recently identified as a potent negative regulator of LDLR (Seidah et al., 2014), thereby counteracting the beneficial effect on the LDL cholesterol.

Targeting of PCSK9 is a recent strategy for lowering plasma LDL-C(Lagace et al., 2006). The cellular level of the LDLR is reduced due to the ability of PCSK9 to bind the LDLR thereby impairing recycling and enhancing lysosomal degradation of the receptor. PCSK9 gain-of-function mutations lead to a significant increase in circulating LDL-C due to increased degradation of LDLR. In contrast, individuals with PCSK9 loss-of-function mutations show reduced levels of LDL-C and exhibit fewer incidents of coronary heart disease. Several leading pharmaceutical companies have obtained approval for therapeutic strategies targeting PCSK9 for the alleviation of hypercholesterolemia. Administration of PCSK9-specific antibodies directed against the LDLR-binding site of PCSK9 is reported to decrease LDL-C plasma levels in Phase III clinical trials (Mullard (2015) Nat Rev Drug Discov; Sheridan (2015) Nature Biotechnology). However, the PCSK9:LDLR binding constant is in the range of 120-620 nM (Cunningham et al., 2007; Fisher et al., 2007) while the PCSK9 plasma concentration is around 6 nM (Lakoski et al., 2009), rendering it highly unlikely that PCSK9 binds LDLR directly at physiologically relevant concentrations. In addition, PCSK9 only targets LDLR in the liver and not in e.g. steroid hormone producing tissues, which also express high levels of LDLR, suggesting the requirement of a liver-specific co-receptor (Seidah et al., 2014). Thus, LDLR is most likely not the primary PCSK9 receptor. Instead, an unknown receptor (receptor X) may capture circulating PCSK9 and subsequently deliver it to LDLR. Inhibition of PCSK9 binding to this receptor is therefore a superior strategy compared to inhibition of the PCSK9:LDLR interaction.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the finding that LDLR is not the sole PCSK9 receptor on the surface of hepatocytes. The present inventors found that PCSK9 harbours a binding motif for heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). Mutations introduced into this motif as well as inhibition of binding to HSPGs by heparin surprisingly protect the LDLR against PCSK9-induced degradation. Inhibition of the interaction between PCSK9 and HSPGs has superior therapeutic potential as compared to the clinical trials of a PCSK9 inhibitory antibody (Chan et al., 2009). Importantly, the HSPG-binding motif in PCSK9 is different from that of the LDLR-binding surface. HSPGs consist of a core protein substituted with one or more heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains. Heparin is a type of heparan sulfate glycosaminoclycan. HSPGs are highly glycosylated cell surface proteins, which bind protein ligands having HSPG-binding motifs, creating local depots of e.g. growth factors (Xu and Esko, 2014). The data show that PCSK9 binds HSPG, and that the interaction is abolished by site-directed mutagenesis of the HSPG-binding motif in PCSK9, resulting in a PCSK9 mutant unable to bind heparin and exhibiting impaired capacity to degrade the LDLR. In addition, incubation of cells with heparin, heparin mimetics or monoclonal antibodies directed against the HSPG binding site in PCSK9 results in elevated levels of the LDLR, accompanied by increased concentration of PCSK9 in the media. Taken together, the results outlined in the present examples demonstrate that PCSK9 function is dependent on binding of HSPGs, and that the cellular level of LDLR is increased when the interaction between PCSK9 and HSPGs is abrogated.

Thus HSPGs function as critical co-receptors in PCSK9 mediated degradation of cell surface LDLR. The present findings show that HSPGs have a crucial function in PCSK9-induced down regulation of LDLR.

The site of interaction between PCSK9 and HSPGs can be targeted in blocking PCSK9 function, in particular in inhibiting the effect of PCSK9 on LDLR levels. Thus a new strategy in treatment of hypercholesterolemia and prevention of coronary heart diseases is disclosed.

In a first aspect, the invention relates to a compound capable of inhibiting binding of heparan sulfate proteoglycan receptors to PCSK9.

In another aspect, the invention relates to a compound as defined herein for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a compound as defined herein for use as a medicament.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a compound as defined herein for use in a method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism in a subject in need thereof.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising administering to said subject a compound as defined herein.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism such as the group consisting of dyslipidemia, hypercholesterolemia and heart coronary diseases in an individual in need thereof, the method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. providing a tissue sample or a plasma sample isolated from         said individual,     -   ii. determining the levels of LDLR in said tissue and/or the         levels of PCSK9 and/or the levels of LDL-C in said plasma         sample,     -   iii. correlating the expression level of step ii) with the         levels of a control tissue sample or a control plasma sample,     -   iv. assessing a treatment regime,     -   v. administering to the individual a composition comprising a         therapeutically effective amount of a composition as defined         herein.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting degradation of LDLR, said method comprising administering a compound as defined herein.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound as defined herein.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method of selecting an antibody specifically recognising and binding an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), said method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. administering to a mammal a polypeptide fragment of PCSK9 or         a polynucleotide fragment encoding a polypeptide fragment of         PCSK9 comprising at least one amino acid residue of the domain         consisting of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO: 1,         such as at least 5, such as at least 10, such as at least 15,         such as at least 20, such as at least 25, such as at least 30,         such as at least 35, such as at least 40, such as at least 45,         such as at least 50, such as at least 55, such as at least 60,         such as at least 65, such as at least 70, such as at least 75,         such as at least 80, such as at least all amino acids of the         domain consisting of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO:         1;     -   ii. identifying and selecting antibodies recognising said         polypeptide, and     -   iii. determining whether said selected antibodies are capable of         displacing one or more reference antibodies in a competitive         ELISA assay.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method of selecting a peptide or a heparin analogue or mimetic capable of inhibiting binding of HSPGs such as heparin to PCSK9, said method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. providing a plurality of peptides or heparin analogues or         mimetics;     -   ii. incubating said plurality of peptides or heparin analogues         or mimetics with cells derived from an LDLR-expressing cell line         such as a hepatocyte-derived cell line in a medium;     -   iii. determining the levels of PCSK9 in said medium and/or the         levels of LDLR of said cells;     -   iv. selecting the peptides or heparin analogues or mimetics         resulting in the highest levels of PCSK9 and/or LDLR as         determined in step iii.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a compound capable of selectively binding the compound as defined herein.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method for producing the antibody as defined herein, said method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. administering to a mammal a protein or a polynucleotide         encoding a protein comprising the HSPG binding domain of PCSK9         or a fragment thereof or a functional equivalent thereof;     -   ii. selecting said antibody if it is able to bind to PCSK9 (SEQ         ID NO: 1);     -   iii. selecting said antibody if it is unable to bind to mutated         PCSK9, wherein said mutated PCSK9 is unable to bind to HSPG.

In another aspect, the invention relates to a method for reducing plasma LDL-C levels in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising the step of administering to said subject a compound or a pharmaceutical composition as defined herein.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: A drawing of the current model as described in the literature showing that the LDLR takes up cholesterol-bearing LDL-C particles from the circulation and delivers them to lysosomes for degradation, while the receptor (LDLR) is recycled to the cell surface after release of cargo in endosomes (A). Upon binding to PCSK9 the LDLR itself is degraded in lysosomes (B). Accordingly high activity of PCSK9 results in decreased levels of LDLR at the cell surface and increased plasma cholesterol, whereas inhibition of PCSK9 activity reduces plasma cholesterol levels and slows the progression of coronary artery disease.

FIG. 2: (A) Shown is a spacefilling model of PCSK9 with the LDLR binding site and the HSPG binding sites indicated by the left and right arrowheads, respectively. (B) A heparin pentasaccharide (SANORG, sticks) at the electrostatic surface (red negative; blue positive) of the predicted HSPG binding site in PCSK9 (PDB ID: 2PMVV) (Piper et al., 2007) with positively charged amino acids (R: arginine, H: histidine) indicated. (C) Superposition of SANORG onto the HSPG binding site in PCSK9 (ribbon). (D) Non-permeabilized HepG2 cells expressing PCSK9 (white) after treatment with or without heparinase I. Nuclei were stained with Hoechst (dark grey). (E) PCSK9 binding to heparin was analyzed by heparin affinity chromatography. PCSK9 was eluted from the column at a NaCl concentration of 500 mM.

FIG. 3: PCSK9 variants, in which indicated amino acid residues were mutated to alanine, were transiently expressed in CHO cells. (A) Anti-PCSK9 Western blotting of cell lysate and media showed expression of all PCSK9 variants as well as correct processing from proprotein (proPCSK9) into mature PCSK9 in the cell lysate, and secretion of mature PCSK9 to the media of the cells. No expression of PCSK9 was detected in mock transfected cells. (B) PCSK9 mutants secreted to the media of transiently transfected CHO cells were analysed for binding to heparin by affinity chromatography followed by Western blotting of fractions with anti-PCSK9. All mutants have alanine substitutions at the indicated positions. Wildtype (WT) PCSK9 and mutant R165R167 were eluted in fractions corresponding to 0.3-0.4 M NaCl, whereas PCSK9 mutants R96R97 and R104R105 showed decreased affinity for heparin and were found in the flow through or in the first fraction. PCSK9 mutants R93R104R105H139 and R93R96R97R104R105H139 were found exclusively in the flow through and did not bind to heparin. (C): The HSPG binding domain is positioned opposite the LDLR binding site as shown in a space filling model of PCSK9 in a surface representation of PCSK9 in complex with a LDLR fragment (PDB:3P5B). The LDLR fragment contains the beta propeller domain and EGF domains A and B and L7, while PCSK9 C-terminal, catalytic domain, and prodomain are shown with the basic helix. The modeled heparin fragment is shown as sticks. (D) Endogenous PCSK9 and ApoE from the culture medium of HepG2 cells showed similar binding to heparin when analyzed by affinity chromatography and Western blot.

FIG. 4: HepG2 cells incubated 18 hours with WT PCSK9 (10 nM) show significantly lower levels of LDLR than cells incubated with mutant (R93R96R97R104R105H139) PCSK9 (mut). LDL receptor levels were evaluated by Western blotting (A), levels of GAPDH are shown as control. Bar graphs (B) show average values of LDLR quantified by densitometry (n=3) with standard error of mean (SEM). Results were evaluated using student's t-test. **p<0.01, ****p<0.0001.

FIG. 5: HepG2 cells incubated 24 h with heparin (50 U/ml) show increased levels of LDLR evaluated by Western blotting (A). GAPDH levels are shown as control. Bar graphs (B) show average values with standard error of mean (SEM) of LDLR quantified by densitometry (n=4). Incubation with heparin also results in increased PCSK9 levels in the medium as measured by ELISA (C). Bar graphs show the average PCSK9 concentration with SEM (n=4). Results were evaluated using student's t-test. ***p<0.001, ****p<0.0001. (D)=PLA analysis of non-permeabilized HepG2 cells showed that co-localization between LDLR and PCSK9 was markedly reduced upon incubation of cells with heparin (50 U/ml).

FIG. 6: (A) Using a cell-free PCSK9/LDLR binding assay (BPS Bioscience) we found that heparin (5 and 50 U/ml) does not inhibit the direct interaction of PCSK9 with LDLR in contrast to the control inhibitor anti-PCSK9 antibody (5 nM), which targets the LDLR binding region of PCSK9 (BPS Bioscience 71207). In the binding assay the chemiluminescent signal from biotinylated PCSK9 bound to immobilized LDLR is quantified and results are here shown normalized with respect to signal from samples without inhibitor. Bar graphs show average values (n=3) with standard deviation error bars. Results were evaluated using student's t-test. *****p<0.00001.Y-axis: % if no inhibitor. (B) Dose dependent effect of heparin on PCSK9 in the medium as measured by ELISA (n=3). Y-axis: PCSK9 in media (%); (C) Quantitative analysis of mRNA levels in cell lysates by RT-PCR.

FIG. 7: HepG2 cells incubated for 24 hours with increasing concentration (0-250 μg/ml) of heparin analogue Arixtra (Fondaparinux, GlaxoSmithKline Pharma) have elevated level of LDLR. GAPDH Western Blot is shown as loading control.

FIG. 8: (A) Western blot of LDLR in HepG2 cells following 18 hours incubation with fragmin (100 U/ml) and Innohep (100 U/ml), showing that these two therapeutic preparations of low-molecular weight heparins can increase the cellular level of LDLR comparable to the effect of heparin (50 U/ml). Western blot of GAPDH is shown as loading control. (B) Western Blot showing LDLR levels in liver of mice 1 hour afterintravenous administration of 10 μg PCSK9 alone or in combination with 50 U Heparin. 50 μg membrane preparations were loaded. As control is shown Western Blot for sortilin, a PCSK9 receptor previously shown not to be target of PCSK9 induced degradation. (C) Quantification of B) Bands were quantified by densitometry and dot plot show the individual level of each sample in percent of vehicle (0.9% NaCl) injected controls with mean values and SEM. Mice co-injected with PCSK9 and Heparin show significantly higher level of LDLR (60.3±12.3% LDLR versus 24.0±4.04%, n=7 mice/group, p=0.0157, two-tailed student's t-test). (D) Autoradiography (16 h exposure) showing immunoprecipitation of native human ³⁵S labeled PCSK9 by serum (1 μl) from three rats immunized with DNA encoding rat PCSK9 with human HSPG binding domain. As negative controls were used preimmune serum from the animals. (E) Western Blot showing LDLR in HepG2 cells after overnight incubation with preimmune or immune IgG (1 μg/ml). A markedly increased level of cellular LDLR was seen following incubation with immune IgG compared to preimmune controls. (F) Autoradiography (16 h exposure) showing immunoprecipitation of human ³⁵S-PCSK9 by 24 individual mAbs (500 μl conditioned hybridoma media) selected in ELISA screening performed by Aldevron. As controls were used mAb #2A8 which did not show any PCSK9 immunoreactivity in an ELISA screen (*) (mAb #2A8 was tested unspecific in ELISA test screen performed by Aldevron), and unconditioned hybridoma media (**). (G) Bar graphs showing LDLR levels (average of 2-4 experiments with SEM) in HepG2 cells incubated with mAbs (1:10 dilution of conditioned hybridoma media) as analysed by Western Blot. Twelve individual mAb clones give an approximately two-fold increase LDLR. (H) Autoradiography (16 h exposure) showing immunoprecipitation of human ³⁵S-mutant PCSK9 (with R93R96R97R104R105H139 mutated to alanine residues) by 12 individual mAbs (500 μl conditioned hybridoma media) all showing PCSK9 inhibitory effect. As control was used a polyclonal antibody (pAb, AF3888 from R&D systems). Three of the mAbs failed to precipitate the PCSK9 mutant indicating that they specifically recognize the HSPG binding domain. (I) Autoradiography showing immunoprecipitation of ³⁵S-PCSK9 WT and variants R96R97, R104R104, R93R96R97H139, and R93R96R97R104R105H139 by mAbs 1G8, 5E11, and 10E5 indicating that the mAbs recognize epitopes within the HSPG binding domain. As control was used R&D Systems AF3888 (pAb).

FIG. 9: (A) Western Blot of LDLR in HepG2 cells following 24 hour incubation with heparin mimetics dextran sulphate (200 μg/ml), showing that this compound can potently increase the cellular level of LDLR. For comparison is shown heparin (50 U/ml). GAPDH is shown as loading control. (B) Densitometric quantification of LDLR levels showing concentration dependent increases of LDLR in HepG2 cells after incubation with dextran sulphate (0-200 μg/ml). Bar graphs show LDLR average in % of untreated cells with SEM error bars. (C) Microscale thermophoresis (MST) binding curve for PCSK9 and dextran sulfate. Y axis: fluorescence signal. X axis: dextran sulfate or dextran concentration, K_(D)=180 μM. Circles: dextran sulfate. Squares: dextran. (D) Western Blot, densitometric quantification (E) of LDLR in HepG2 cells following 24 hour incubation with pentosan sulfate (0-200 μg/ml), showing a 4 fold increase in LDLR in lysate from cells treated with 50-200 μg/ml pentosan sulfate. Bar graphs show LDLR average in % of untreated cells with SEM error bars. (F), MST binding curve for PCSK9 and pentosan sulfate Y axis: fluorescence signal. X axis: pentosan sulfate concentration. Circles: pentosan sulfate, K_(D)=381 μM. Squares: control. (G), Quantification of LDLR in HepG2 cells following 24 hour incubation with suramin (0-200 μg/ml). Bar graphs show LDLR average in % of untreated cells with SEM error bars. Representative Western blot of LDLR in suramin-incubated HepG2 cells is shown in (A). (H): MST binding curve for PCSK9 and suramin. Y axis: fluorescence signal. X axis suramin concentration. Circles: suramin, K_(D)=190 μM. Squares: control. (I) Western Blot, and densitometric quantification (J) of LDLR in HepG2 cells following 24 hour incubation with phosphorothioateoligonucleotide S-dC-36 (0-5.0 μM), showing a concentration dependent increase in cellular receptor levels. Bar graphs show LDLR average in % of untreated cells with SEM error bars. Results were evaluated using student's t-test. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, ****p<0.0001. (K) MST binding curve for PCSK9 and S-dC-36. Y axis: fluorescence signal. X axis S-dC-36 concentration. Circles: S-dC-36, K_(D)=4.8 μM. Squares: control.

FIG. 10: Infusion of heparinase I prior injection of PCSK9 (10 μg) completely inhibits PCSK9 induced degradation of LDLR. Shown is a Western blot of representative samples (A) and bar graph quantification of LDLR (B). For Western blots, GAPDH is used as a loading control. e: empty lane. Control n=7, PCSK9 n=6, heparinase n=5, heparinase/PCSK9 n=5. Mice co-injected with PCSK9 (10 μg) and heparin (50 U) or suramin (300 μg) show significantly higher level of LDLR compared to mice injected with PCSK9 alone (C). Control n=15, PCSK9 n=10, PCSK9/heparin n=7, PCSK9/suramin n=3. (D) Plasma levels of PCSK9 after intravenous injection of heparin (50 u) as assessed by murine PCSK9 specific ELISA.

FIG. 11: LDLR levels in liver of mice 1 hour after intravenous administration of 10 μg PCSK9 alone or in combination with 50 μg mAbs.

FIG. 12: Bar graphs showing the relative fluorescence signal in HepG2 cells after overnight incubation with suramin (200 μg/ml) following 4 hours incubation with 10 ng/ml LDL particles labeled with fluorescence dye Bodipy. Inhibition of PCSK9 with suramin increases the uptake of LDL two-fold.

FIG. 13: A) and B) Bar graphs showing LDLR levels, as assessed by Western Blot, in HepG2 cells following 24 and 48 hours of incubation with 100 μM suramin or HMG CoA reductase inhibitors mevastatin and simvastatin. Cells incubated with suramin display a higher level of LDLR that cells incubated with statins.

DEFINITIONS

Heparin analogue: the term as used herein refers to compounds being structurally similar to heparin.

Heparin mimetic: the term herein refers to compounds behaving functionally like, i.e. mimicking, heparin. This term thus includes both compounds being structurally similar, but also compounds having different structure but same functionality as heparin, in the context of the present disclosure.

LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels: The optimal LDL-C levels for a given individual vary depending on his/her underlying risk of heart disease. For healthy individuals, LDL-C levels should ideally be less than 2.6-3.3 mmol/L (or 100-129 mg/dL). Levels between 3.4 and 4.1 mmol/L or 130 and 159 mg/dL are borderline high, levels between 4.1 and 4.9 mmol/L or 160 and 189 mg/dL are high, and levels above 4.9 mmol/L or 189 mg/dL are very high. For individuals at risk of heart disease, levels below 2.6 mmol/L or 100 mg/dL are recommended, while levels below 1.8 mmol/L or 70 mg/dL are desirable for individuals at very high risk of heart disease.

Low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) levels: Synthesis of LDLR in the cell is regulated by the level of free intracellular cholesterol; if cholesterol is in excess for the needs of the cell then the transcription of LDLR will be inhibited. LDLR levels can be estimated by methods known in the art, such as, but not limited to, Western blotting, RT-PCR an flow cytometry.

Low-molecular weight heparin: Natural heparin consists of molecular chains of varying lengths, or molecular weights. For example, chains of varying molecular weights, from 5000 to over 40,000 Daltons, make up polydisperse pharmaceutical-grade heparin. Low-molecular weight heparins, in contrast, consist of only short chains of polysaccharide. Low-molecular weight heparins are defined as heparin salts having an average molecular weight of less than 8000 Da and for which at least 60% of all chains have a molecular weight less than 8000 Da. These are obtained by various methods known to the person skilled in the art, such as fractionation or depolymerisation of polymeric heparin.

Lipoprotein metabolism disorder: the term refers to disorders of lipid homeostasis and disorders associated therewith, including by way of example hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, hypertriglyceridaemia, sitosterolemia, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, coronary heart disease, metabolic syndrome, acute coronary syndrome, xanthoma, hypertension, angina, obesity, diabetes and vascular inflammation.

PCSK9 levels: plasma levels of PCSK9 vary from 30 to 3000 ng/mL in the general population, and median levels are in general higher in women than in men. PCSK9 levels correlate with LDL-C levels.

Phosphorothioates (or phosphorothioate oligonucleotides or S-oligos) are a DNA variant in which one of the non-bridging oxygens is replaced by a sulfur. The sulfurization of the internucleotide bond is thought to dramatically reduce the action of various nucleases and to increase the potential for crossing the lipid bilayer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention is as defined in the claims.

The present invention relates in a first aspect to a compound capable of inhibiting binding of HSPGs to PCSK9. It will be understood throughout this disclosure that compounds capable of inhibiting binding of HSPGs to variants of PCSK9 is also within the scope of the invention. By variant of PCSK9 is understood a polypeptide which has essentially the same sequence as SEQ ID NO: 1, for example variants having conservative substitutions of some residues of SEQ ID NO: 1.

In some embodiments, said compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1) that comprises at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), such as at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 92, such as at least one of amino acid residues 93 to 97, such as at least one of amino acid residues 98 to 103, such as at least one of amino acid residues 104 to 105, such as at least one of amino acid residues 106 to 135, such as at least one of amino acid residues 136 to 139, such as at least one of amino acid residues 140 to 164, such as at least one of amino acid residues 165 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

Herein is provided a compound that specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1) that comprises at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), such as at least 2, such as at least 5, such as at least 10, such as at least 15, such as at least 20, such as at least 25, such as at least 30, such as at least 35, such as at least 40, such as at least 45, such as at least 50, such as at least 55, such as at least 60, such as at least 65, such as at least 70, such as at least 75, such as at least 80, such as at least 85, such as all of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

In some embodiments, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region comprising at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 92, such as at least one of amino acid residues 93 to 97, such as at least one of amino acid residues 98 to 103, such as at least one of amino acid residues 104 to 105, such as at least one of amino acid residues 106 to 135, such as at least one of amino acid residues 136 to 139, such as at least one of amino acid residues 140 to 164, such as at least one of amino acid residues 165 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

In some embodiments, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region comprising at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 92, such as amino acid residues 93 to 97, such as amino acid residues 98 to 103, such as amino acid residues 104 to 105, such as amino acid residues 106 to 135, such as amino acid residues 136 to 139, such as amino acid residues 140 to 164, such as amino acid residues 165 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

Thus in one embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 78 to 167. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 78 to 95. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 96 to 100. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 101 to 105. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 106 to 110. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 111 to 115. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 116 to 120. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 121 to 125. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 126 to 130. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 131 to 135. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 136 to 140. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 141 to 145. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 146 to 150. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 151 to 155. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 156 to 160. In another embodiment, the compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 161 to 167.

Thus there is provided a compound which binds to one or more amino acids selected from the group consisting of R93, R96, R97, R104, R105, K136, H139, R165 and R167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), such as one amino acid, such as two amino acids, such as three amino acids, such as four amino acids, such as five amino acids, such as six amino acids, such as seven amino acids, such as eight amino acids, such as all of the amino acids selected from the group consisting of R93, R96, R97, R104, R105, K136, H139, R165 and R167 of PCSK9.

Thus in one embodiment, the compound binds to R93 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R96 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R97 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R104 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R105 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to K136 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R165 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R167 of PCSK9.

In one embodiment, the compound binds to R96 and to R97 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R104 and R105 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to K136 and H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R93 and H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R93, R104, R105 and H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R165 and R167 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R93, R96, R97, R104, R105 and H139 of PCSK9.

Antibodies

Also disclosed is a compound as defined herein, wherein the compound is an antibody or functional equivalent thereof.

An antibody of the invention may be any polypeptide or protein capable of recognising and binding an antigen as defined herein. Preferably, said antibody is capable of specifically binding said antigen. By the term “specifically binding” is meant binding with at least 10 times higher affinity to the antigen than to a non-specific antigen (e.g. BSA).

The antibody may be a naturally occurring antibody or a functional equivalent thereof. A naturally occurring antibody is a heterotetrameric glycoprotein capable of recognising and binding an antigen. It comprises two identical heavy (H) chains and two identical light (L) chains inter-connected by disulfide bonds. Each heavy chain comprises or preferably consists of a heavy chain variable region (abbreviated herein as V_(H)) and a heavy chain constant region (abbreviated herein as C_(H)). Each light chain comprises or preferably consists of a light chain variable region (abbreviated herein as V_(L)) and a light chain constant region (abbreviated herein as C_(L)). The V_(H) and V_(L) regions can be further subdivided into regions of hypervariability, termed complementarity determining regions (CDRs), interspersed with regions that are more conserved, termed framework regions (FRs). Each V_(H) and V_(L) comprises and preferably consists of three CDRs and four FRs, arranged from amino-terminus to carboxy-terminus in the following order: FR1, CDR1, FR2, CDR2, FR3, CDR3, FR4.

The naturally occurring antibody may also be a heavy-chain antibody (HCAbs) as produced by camelids (camels, dromedaries and llamas). HCAbs are homodimers of heavy chains only, devoid of light chains and the first constant domain (Hamers-Casterman et al., 1993). Other naturally occurring antibodies may be devoid of light chains as is the case for the New or Nurse Shark Antigen Receptor (NAR) protein, which exists as a dimer of two heavy chains with no associated light chains. Each chain is composed of one variable (V) and five constant domains. The NAR proteins constitute a single immunoglobulin variable-like domain (Greenberg et al., 1995.) which is much lighter than an antibody molecule.

Naturally occurring antibodies according to the invention may consist of one heterotetramer or they may comprise several identical heterotetramers. Thus, the naturally occurring antibody according to the invention may for example be selected from the group consisting of IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE. The subunit structures and three-dimensional configurations of these different classes of immunoglobulins are well known. In a preferred embodiment of the invention the antibody is IgG, e.g. IgG-1, IgG-2, IgG-3 and IgG-4.

The antibody may be a monoclonal antibody, such as a naturally occurring monoclonal antibody. In other embodiments, the antibody may be polyclonal antibodies, such as naturally occurring polyclonal antibodies. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies are discussed in further detail herein below.

Naturally occurring antibodies may be antibodies of a particular species, for example the antibody may be a murine, a rat, a rabbit, a goat, a sheep, a chicken, a donkey, a camelid or a human antibody. The antibody may be a murine or rat monoclonal antibody. The antibody may however also be a hybrid between antibodies from several species, for example the antibody may be a chimeric antibody, such as a humanised antibody. Human and humanised antibodies are discussed in further detail herein below.

Antigen Binding Fragments of Antibodies

Antigen binding fragments of antibodies are fragments of antibodies retaining the ability to specifically bind to an antigen. Thus in some embodiments the functional equivalent of an antibody comprises a binding fragment of an antibody. Preferably, said fragment is an antigen binding fragment of a naturally occurring antibody. It has been shown that the antigen-binding function of an antibody can be performed by fragments of a full-length antibody. Examples of antigen binding fragments of naturally occurring antibodies include for example (i) a Fab fragment, a monovalent fragment consisting of the V_(L), V_(H), C_(L) and C_(H1) domains; (ii) a F(ab′)₂ fragment, a bivalent fragment comprising two Fab fragments linked by a disulfide bridge at the hinge region; (iii) an Fd fragment consisting of the V_(H) and C_(H), domains; (iv) an Fv fragment consisting of the V_(L) and V_(H) domains of a single arm of an antibody or (v) a dAb fragment (Ward et al., 1989), which consists of a V_(H) domain. Fab fragments may be prepared by papain digestion. F(ab′) 2 fragments may be prepared by pepsin treatment.

The antigen binding fragment of an antibody preferably comprises at least one complementarity determining region (CDR) or more preferably a combination of two or more isolated CDRs which may optionally be joined by a synthetic linker.

A further example of an antigen binding fragment of an antibody is binding-domain immunoglobulin fusion proteins comprising (i) an antigen binding site fused to an immuno-globulin hinge region polypeptide, (ii) an immunoglobulin heavy chain CH2 constant region fused to the hinge region, and (iii) an immunoglobulin heavy chain CH3 constant region fused to the CH2 constant region. The antigen binding site can be a heavy chain variable region or a light chain variable region. Such binding-domain immunoglobulin fusion proteins are further disclosed in US 2003/0118592 and US 2003/0133939. These antibody fragments are obtained using conventional techniques known to those with skill in the art, and the fragments are screened for utility in the same manner as are intact antibodies.

The antigen binding fragment of an antibody may also be a diabody, which are small antibody fragments with two antigen-binding sites. Diabodies preferably comprises a heavy chain variable domain (VH) connected to a light chain variable domain (VL) in the same polypeptide chain (VH-VL). By using a linker that is too short to allow pairing between the two domains on the same chain, the domains are forced to pair with the complementary domains of another chain and create two antigen-binding sites. Diabodies are described more fully in, for example, EP 404,097; WO 93/11161; and Hollinger et al., 1993.

Heterospecific Antibodies

The antibody disclosed herein may also be a “heterospecific antibody”, such as a bispecific antibody. A bispecific antibody is a protein or polypeptide, which comprises two different antigen binding sites with different specificities. For example, the bispecific antibody may recognise and bind to (a) a first epitope within a first antigen and (b) a second epitope within a second antigen; or it may recognise and bind to two different epitopes within the same antigen. The term “heterospecific antibody” is intended to include any protein or polypeptide, which has more than two different antigen binding sites with different specificities. For example, the heterospecific antibody may recognise and bind to (a) a first epitope on a first antigen, (b) a second epitope on a second antigen and (c) a third epitope on a third antigen; or it may recognise and bind to (a) a first epitope on a first antigen and (b) a second and third epitope on a second antigen; or it may recognise and bind to different epitopes on the same antigen. Accordingly, the invention includes, but is not limited to, bispecific, trispecific, tetraspecific, and other multispecific antibodies which are directed to different epitopes on the same or on different antigens.

Bispecific antibodies may for example be prepared starting from monoclonal antibodies, for example by fusing two hybridoma's in order to combine their specificity, by chemical crosslinking or using recombinant technologies. For example the V_(H) and V_(L) of two different antibodies (1 and 2) may be linked by recombinant means to form “cross-over” chains V_(H)1-V_(L)2 and V_(H)2-V_(L)1, and then dimerised to reassemble both antigen-binding sites (see WO 94/09131). Bispecific antibodies may also be prepared by genetically linking two single chain antibodies with different specificities as for example described in WO 94/13806. Also two antigen binding fragments of an antibody may be linked.

Human and Humanised Antibodies

It is not always desirable to use non-human antibodies for human therapy, accordingly the antibody according to the invention may be a human antibody or a humanised antibody.

A human antibody as understood herein is an antibody, which is obtained from a system using human immunoglobulin sequences. Human antibodies may for example be antibodies isolated from an animal (e.g., a mouse) that is transgenic or transchromosomal for human immunoglobulin genes or a hybridoma prepared therefrom. Human antibodies may also be isolated from a host cell transformed to express the antibody, e.g., from a transfectoma. Human antibodies may also be isolated from a recombinant, combinatorial human antibody library.

Human antibodies have variable and constant regions derived from human germline immunoglobulin sequences. In certain embodiments, however, such recombinant human antibodies can be subjected to in vitro mutagenesis or in vivo somatic mutagenesis and thus the amino acid sequences of the V_(H) and V_(L) regions of the recombinant antibodies are sequences that, while derived from and related to human germline V_(H) and V_(L) sequences, may not naturally exist within the human antibody germline repertoire in vivo.

A human antibody is preferably at least 90%, more preferably at least 95%, even more preferably at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical in amino acid sequence to the amino acid sequence encoded by a wild type human immunoglobulin gene.

Said transgenic or transchromosomal animal may contain a human immunoglobulin gene minilocus that encodes unrearranged human heavy (μ and/or γ) and κ light chain immunoglobulin sequences. Furthermore, the animal may contain one or more mutations that inactivate the endogenous heavy and light chain loci. Examples of such animals are described in Lonberg et al. (1994) and WO 02/43478.

The antibody disclosed herein may be a chimeric antibody, i.e. an antibody comprising regions derived from different species. The chimeric antibody may for example comprise variable regions from one animal species and constant regions from another animal species. For example, a chimeric antibody can be an antibody having variable regions which derive from a mouse monoclonal antibody and constant regions which are human. Such antibodies may also be referred to as humanised antibodies.

Thus, the antibody may also be a humanised antibody, which is encoded partly by sequences obtained from human germline immunoglobulin sequences and partly from other sequences. Said other sequences are preferably germline immunoglobulines from other species, more preferably from other mammalian species. In particular a humanised antibody may be an antibody in which the antigen binding site is derived from an immunoglobulin from a non-human species, preferably from a non-human mammal, e.g. from a mouse or a rat, whereas some or all of the remaining immunoglobulin-derived parts of the molecule are derived from a human immunoglobulin. The antigen binding site from said non-human species may for example consist of a complete V_(L) or V_(H) or both, or one or more CDRs grafted onto appropriate human framework regions in V_(L) or V_(H) or both. Thus, in a humanized antibody, the CDRs can be from a mouse or rat monoclonal antibody and the other regions of the antibody are of human origin.

Monoclonal Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) refer to a population of antibodies, wherein the antibody molecules are similar and thus recognise and bind to the same epitope. Monoclonal antibodies are in general produced by a host cell line and frequently by a hybridoma cell line. Methods of making monoclonal antibodies and antibody-synthesizing hybridoma cells are well known to those skilled in the art. Antibody producing hybridomas may for example be prepared by fusion of an antibody producing B lymphocytes with an immortalized B-lymphocyte cell line. Monoclonal antibodies according to the present invention may for example be prepared by the standard somatic cell hybridization technique of Kohler and Milstein, Nature 256:495 (1975) or as described in Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, By Ed Harlow and David Lane, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1988. Said monoclonal antibodies may be derived from any suitable mammalian species, however frequently the monoclonal antibodies will be rodent antibodies for example murine or rat monoclonal antibodies.

Polyclonal Antibodies

Polyclonal antibodies refer to a population of antibodies comprising a mixture of different antibody molecules recognising and binding to a specific given antigen, hence polyclonal antibodies may recognise different epitopes within said antigen. In general polyclonal antibodies are purified from the serum of an animal, preferably a mammal, which previously has been immunized with the antigen. Polyclonal antibodies may for example be prepared by any of the methods described in Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, By Ed Harlow and David Lane, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1988.

Recombinant Antibodies

The antibody may also be a recombinant antibody, i.e. an antibody prepared, expressed, created or isolated by recombinant means. Recombinant antibodies according to the invention may be for example be produced using a synthetic library or by phage display. In some embodiments, the antibody is produced in a recombinant cell. The recombinant cell may be a microorganism selected from the group comprising bacteria and eukaryotic microorganisms. Recombinant antibodies may be produced in microbial host organisms, such as bacteria, yeasts or cultures of cells derived from multicellular organisms. Frequently, Escherichia coli is useful as host organism. Frequently recombinant antibodies are fragments of naturally occurring antibodies comprising at least one antigen binding site, such as a Fab fragment, a F(ab′)₂, a Fv fragment or the recombinant antibody is a scFV. Thus in some embodiments the antibody is a fragment of a naturally occurring antibody comprising at least one antigen binding site, such as a Fab fragment, a F(ab′)₂, a Fv fragment. In other embodiments, the recombinant antibody is a scFV.

Recombinant antibodies may be identified using various systems, such as phage display or ribosome display. The starting point of phage display is usually a library of antibodies, such as single chain antibodies or fragments of naturally occurring antibodies expressed by a phage. Various different kinds of phages are suitable for use in phage display, e.g. M13, fd filamentous phage, T4, T7 or λ phage. Phagemids may also be used, but that usually requires use of a helper phage. Typically the library comprises in the range of 10⁷ to 10¹⁵, such as 10⁹ to 10¹¹ different phages. The antibodies may be either of naive or immune origin. The antibodies of the library may be fused to a phage coat protein (e.g. g3p or g8p) in order to ensure display on the surface. Thus, the antibody (fragment) may be encoded by a nucleic acid sequence, which is cloned upstream or downstream of a nucleic acid encoding a phage coat protein, which is operably linked to a suitable promoter.

The genomic information coding for antibody e.g. for the antibody variable domains may be obtained from B cells of non-immunised or immunised donors using recombinant DNA technology to amplify the V_(H) and V_(L) gene segments and cloning into an appropriate phage. Synthetic libraries may be prepared by rearranging V_(H) and V_(L) gene segments in vitro and/or by introducing artificial sequences into V_(H) and V_(L) gene segments. For example synthetic libraries may be prepared using a V_(H) and V_(L) gene framework, but introducing into this artificial complementarity determining regions (CDRs), which may be encoded by random oligonucleotides. The library may also be different libraries, which are then combined in the host cell. Thus, one library may comprise heavy chain sequences, such as the heavy chain Fv fragment or Fab fragment or V_(H) and the other light chain sequences, such as the light chain Fv fragment or Fab fragment V_(L). Typically several rounds of selection, e.g. 2 to 5, such as 2 to 3 are performed. This may be done by immobilising the antigen, contacting the antigen with the phage and isolating the bound phages. The antigen may be immobilised on any suitable solid surface, such as a plastic surface, beads (such as magnetic beads), a resin in a column, or it may be expressed on the surface of a cell.

Single Chain Antibodies

Naturally occurring antibodies are heterotetramers. However, the antibody as defined herein may also be a single polypeptide comprising one or more antigen binding sites. Such antibodies are also referred to as “single chain antibodies”. Thus the antibody may also be a single chain antibody. Single chain antibodies may comprise the two domains of the Fv fragment, V_(L) and V_(H). To obtain such single chain antibodies the genes encoding the V_(L) and V_(H) may be joined, using recombinant methods. Usually they are separated by a synthetic linker, for example a linker of 5 to 100, such as of 5 to 50, for example of 25 amino acids. Said linker may either connect the N-terminus of the V_(H) with the C-terminus of the V_(L), or vice versa. This enables production of a single protein chain in which the V_(L) and V_(H) regions pair to form monovalent antibody like molecules (also known as single chain antibodies or single chain Fv (scFv); see e.g., Bird et al. (1988) Science 242:423-426; and Huston et al. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:5879-5883).

The single chain antibody may also be a divalent antibody, e.g. a single peptide chain comprising two V_(H) and two V_(L) regions, which may be linked two by two by a linker. The single chain antibody may also be a multivalent antibody, e.g. a single peptide chain comprising multiple V_(H) and multiple V_(L) regions, which may be linked two by two by a linker. The V_(H) and V_(L) regions may be identical or different, yielding monospecific or heterospecific antibodies, respectively. Said V_(H) and said V_(L) may be a naturally occurring V_(H) or V_(L), or a synthetic V_(H) and V_(L) comprising at least one antigen binding site. Preferably said V_(H) and V_(L) are naturally occurring V_(H) and V_(L).

The compound disclosed herein may be a monoclonal or polyclonal antibody. The antibody may originate from any organism known in the art to be suitable for the production of antibodies, such as live organisms, for example mice, sheep, rabbit, or cell cultures such as bacterial cells, yeast cells, plant cells, insect cells or mammalian cell lines such as CHO cells. The antibody may be humanised. Preferably the antibody is a murine monoclonal antibody.

Also within the scope of the invention are functional equivalents which comprise a binding fragment of an antibody. The fragment may be selected from the group consisting of Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)₂ and Fv fragments such as ScFv fragments. The functional equivalent may also be a single chain antibody. Other embodiments relate to functional equivalents that e.g. comprise or consist of the binding fragment of an antibody binding to the HSPG binding domain of PCSK9 as detailed above. In some embodiments the functional equivalent may further comprise engineered domains which may for example increase the half-life, the stability, the bioavailability, the solubility or other relevant characteristics of the antibody fragment. For example, it is known in the art that engineered intradomain sulphide bonds can stabilise antibodies (Wozniak-Knopp et al. 2012). Other methods of stabilisation include e.g. the use of a peptide linker between the V_(H) and the V_(L) domains, resulting in stabilisation of Fv fragments (Reiter et al., 1994).

The functional equivalent may also be an antibody mimetic, or a small molecule mimicking an antibody. Antibody mimetics are organic compounds, including, but not limited to, nucleic acids, that can specifically bind antigens, but that are not structurally related to antibodies. They are usually artificial peptides or proteins, typically with a molar mass of about 3 to 20 kDa. Some types have an antibody-like β-sheet structure. Antibody mimetics sometimes display better solubility, tissue penetration, stability towards heat and enzymes compared to antibodies, as well as comparatively low production costs.

Thus is provided an antibody or functional equivalent thereof, which specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1) that comprises at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), such as at least 2, such as at least 5, such as at least 10, such as at least 15, such as at least 20, such as at least 25, such as at least 30, such as at least 35, such as at least 40, such as at least 45, such as at least 50, such as at least 55, such as at least 60, such as at least 65, such as at least 70, such as at least 75, such as at least 80, such as at least 85, such as all of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

In some embodiments, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope comprising at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 92, such as at least one of amino acid residues 93 to 97, such as at least one of amino acid residues 98 to 103, such as at least one of amino acid residues 104 to 105, such as at least one of amino acid residues 106 to 135, such as at least one of amino acid residues 136 to 139, such as at least one of amino acid residues 140 to 164, such as at least one of amino acid residues 165 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

In some embodiments, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope comprising at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 92, such as amino acid residues 93 to 97, such as amino acid residues 98 to 103, such as amino acid residues 104 to 105, such as amino acid residues 106 to 135, such as amino acid residues 136 to 139, such as amino acid residues 140 to 164, such as amino acid residues 165 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

Thus in one embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 78 to 167. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 78 to 95. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 96 to 100. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 101 to 105. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 106 to 110. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 111 to 115. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 116 to 120. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 121 to 125. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 126 to 130. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 131 to 135. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 136 to 140. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 141 to 145. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 146 to 150. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 151 to 155. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 156 to 160. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 comprising amino acid residues 161 to 167.

Thus there is provided an antibody or functional equivalent thereof which binds to one or more amino acids selected from the group consisting of R93, R96, R97, R104, R105, K136, H139, R165 and R167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), such as one amino acid, such as two amino acids, such as three amino acids, such as four amino acids, such as five amino acids, such as six amino acids, such as seven amino acids, such as eight amino acids, such as all of the amino acids selected from the group consisting of R93, R96, R97, R104, R105, K136, H139, R165 and R167 of PCSK9.

Thus in one embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R93 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R96 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the compound binds to R97 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R104 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R105 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to K136 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R165 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R167 of PCSK9.

In one embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R96 and to R97 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R104 and R105 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to K136 and H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R93 and H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R93, R104, R105 and H139 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R165 and R167 of PCSK9. In another embodiment, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof binds to R93, R96, R97, R104, R105 and H139 of PCSK9.

In a particular embodiment, the antibody is a monoclonal antibody. In one embodiment, the antibody is a murine monoclonal antibody. In some embodiments, the antibody or functional equivalent thereof has been humanised. The antibody may be a single chain antibody.

In some embodiments, the antibody is a bispecific antibody. In one embodiment, the bispecific antibody is capable of recognising and binding the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 as detailed above but is also capable of binding and recognising the LDLR binding site of PCSK9 so that binding of such an antibody to PCSK9 inhibits binding of HSPG and of LDLR to PCSK9. Without being bound by theory, the LDLR binding site comprises residue 194 (A194) and the domain comprising residues 367 to 381 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), in particular P379. Thus in some embodiments, the compound is a bispecific antibody capable of binding to the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 as described above and capable of binding to at least one amino acid residue of the LDLR binding domain, where the at least one amino acid residue of the LDLR binding domain is residue 194 of SEQ ID NO: 1 or is comprised within the domain comprising residues 367 to 381 of SEQ ID NO: 1.

In some embodiments, the antibody is not capable of binding to the LDLR-binding domain of PCSK9.

Thus is also disclosed an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprising:

-   -   (i) a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version         thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as defined by         SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11 or SEQ ID NO: 12, and     -   (ii) a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized         version thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as         defined by SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14 or SEQ ID NO: 15.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 13), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO: 7 and/or a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO: 5,

In other embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises:

-   -   (i) a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version         thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as defined by         SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17 or SEQ ID NO: 18, and     -   (ii) a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized         version thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as         defined by SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20 or SEQ ID NO: 21.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 10), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 12), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof.

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least two of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) or CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the heavy chain variable region or humanized version thereof comprises all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 16), CDR2 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 18), and a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising all of CDR1 (SEQ ID NO: 19), CDR 2 (SEQ ID NO: 20) and CDR3 (SEQ ID NO: 21).

In some embodiments, the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO: 9 and/or a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO: 3,

In some embodiments the antibody or functional equivalent thereof is an antibody variant. Such variants include, but are not limited to, antibodies which have been modified in order to increase half-life, solubility and/or bioavailability. The functional equivalent may comprise a fragment of an antibody which is capable of binding to the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1). In some embodiments, the fragment is selected from the group consisting of Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)₂ and Fv fragments. Such variants may comprise engineered intradomain disulphide bonds.

The antibody or functional equivalent thereof may be obtained by domain shuffling. Domain shuffling can be performed by methods known in the art, such as by traditional cloning or by ligase-independent methods, e.g. uracil-specific excision reagent (USER) cloning and fusion (Nour-Eldin et al., 2010; Villiers et al., 2010).

In some embodiments, one or more Fv fragment of the antibody or functional equivalent thereof comprises a peptide linker between the V_(H) and the V_(L) domains.

LDLR and LDL-C Levels

Binding of the compound disclosed herein to PCSK9 results in reduced binding of PCSK9 to LDLR compared to the binding in the absence of said compound. This in turn results in increased levels of LDLR of cells derived from an LDLR-expressing cell line such as a hepatocyte-derived cell line, for example on their surface, compared to the levels in the absence of said compound. In some embodiments, the compound is an antibody and its binding to PCSK9 results in reduced binding of PCSK9 to LDLR compared to the binding in the absence of said antibody. This in turn results in increased levels of LDLR of cells derived from an LDLR-expressing cell line such as a hepatocyte-derived cell line compared to the levels in the absence of said antibody.

Thus in some embodiments, binding of the compound to PCSK9 results in increased levels of LDLR of cells derived from an LDLR-expressing cell line such as a hepatocyte-derived cell line compared to the levels in the absence of said compound. In specific embodiments, the compound is an antibody as defined above and binding of the antibody to PCSK9 results in increased levels of LDLR of cells derived from an LDLR-expressing cell line such as a hepatocyte-derived cell line compared to the levels in the absence of said antibody.

In some embodiments, binding of the compound to PCSK9 results in decreased lysosomal degradation of LDLR compared to the degradation in the absence of said compound. In specific embodiments, the compound is an antibody as defined above and binding of the antibody to PCSK9 results in decreased lysosomal degradation of LDLR compared to the degradation in the absence of said antibody.

In some embodiments, binding of the compound to PCSK9 results in decreased plasma levels of LDL-C compared to the levels in the absence of said compound. The term ‘plasma LDL-C levels’ shall be understood to refer to the levels of LDL-C in the plasma, i.e. the amount of LDL-C protein. In specific embodiments, the compound is an antibody as defined above and binding of the antibody to PCSK9 results in decreased plasma levels of LDL-C compared to the levels in the absence of said antibody.

The plasma levels of LDL-C can be determined in vivo or in vitro. Methods to determine plasma levels of LDL-C are known in the art and include, but are not limited to Western Blot, immuno-staining, ELISA, ultracentrifugation, fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) and electrophoresis methods.

The compound disclosed herein may be an antibody stable in serum.

Also provided herein is a compound as defined above which is non-toxic, in particular after administration. In some embodiments, the compound is an antibody which is non-toxic after administration.

In some embodiments, the compound is administered in combination with another compound, such as an anti-PCSK9 antibody, such as an antibody binding to the LDLR-binding site of PCSK9, or a statin. In some embodiments, the compound is administered together with an antibody selected from the group consisting of: lodelcizumab, ralpancizumab, alirocumab, evolocumab and bococizumab.

Accordingly, is provided herein a method for reducing plasma LDL-C levels in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising the step of administering to said subject a compound or a pharmaceutical composition as defined herein. Plasma LDL-C levels can be determined in vivo or in vitro by any method known in the art, as described above.

Heparin Analogues and Heparin Mimetics

In some embodiments, the compound capable of inhibiting binding of HSPGs to PCSK9 is a heparin analogue or a heparin mimetic. See e.g. R. Lever et al. (eds.), Heparin—A Century of Progress, Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 207, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012, herein incorporated by reference.

The heparin analogue or heparin mimetic may be a competitive antagonist, an uncompetitive antagonist, a non-competitive antagonist, a silent antagonist, a partial agonist or an inverse agonist of HSPGs.

In some embodiments, the compound is heparin. In other embodiments, the heparin analogue or heparin mimetic is a peptide.

In some embodiments, the heparin analogue or heparin mimetic is capable of inhibiting binding of heparin to PCSK9. The heparin analogue or heparin mimetic may bind to any of the amino acid residues of PCSK9 as described herein above.

The compound, the heparin analogue or the heparin mimetic may have a general structure of formula (I):

-   -   wherein:         -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of COOH and —O₃SO,         -   R₂, R₃, R₅ and R₇ are selected from the group consisting of             O and OH         -   R₄ is selected from the group consisting of a sulfate group,         -   R₆ is selected from the group consisting of a sulphamate             group, OH and O,         -   R₈ is selected from the group consisting of a sulfate group,         -   n is an integer equal or greater than 1,     -   and wherein R₂ and/or R₇ optionally can act as linkers linking         monomer units.

In one embodiment, the heparin analogue or mimetic is

-   -   a) Fondaparinux (Arixtra™) and has the formula:

-   -   b) a low molecular weight heparin such as dalteparin sodium or         tinzaparin sodium; and     -   c) a compound of formula (II):

-   -   wherein R₉ and R₁₀ are independently selected from the group         consisting of H, COOH, —O₃SO, O, OH, sulfate and sulfamate, and         wherein n is an integer equal to or greater than 1.

In one embodiment, the compound of formula (II) is pentosan and has the formula:

-   -   where n is an integer equal to or greater than 1.

In one embodiment, the compound is a low molecular weight heparin. In a specific embodiment, the low molecular weight heparin is dalteparin sodium (trade name fragmin). In another embodiment, the low molecular weight heparin is tinzaparin sodium (trade name Innohep™).

In yet another embodiment, the compound is a compound of formula (II):

-   -   wherein R₉ and R₁₀ are independently selected from the group         consisting of H, COOH, —O₃SO, O, OH, sulfate and sulfamate, and         wherein n is an integer equal to or greater than 1.

In one embodiment, the compound of formula (II) is is pentosan and has the formula:

-   -   where n is an integer equal to or greater than 1.

In some embodiments, the compound is suramin.

Suramin has the formula:

In a specific embodiment, the compound is a compound of formula (III):

wherein R₁₁, R₁₂, R₁₃, R₁₄, R₁₅, R₁₆, R₁₇, R₁₈, and R₁₉ are independently selected from the group consisting of COOH, —O₃SO, O, OH, sulfate and sulfamate, and n is an integer equal to or greater than 1, and wherein R₁₄ optionally can act as linkers linking monomer units.

In one embodiment, the compound of formula (III) is dextran sulphate and has the formula:

-   -   where n is an integer equal to or greater than 1.

In another embodiment, the compound is a phosphorothioate oligonucleotide S-dNn, where N is any nucleotide and where n is the number of phosphorothioate linkages in said phosphorothioate oligonucleotide. Phosphorothioate oligonucleotides are known to act as heparin mimetics and bind to heparin binding proteins such as bFGF (Benimetskaya et al., 1995). Their polyanonic backbone makes them resemble heparin, dextran sulphate and pentosan. In some embodiments, the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is S-dCn. In other embodiments, the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is S-dAn. In other embodiments, the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is S-dGn. In other embodiments, the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is S-DTn. In other embodiments, any nucleotide of the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is chosen independently from the others from the group consisting of A, T, G and C.

The general structure of an S-dCn, where n is an integer nucleotide is represented in the below formula:

Preferably, n is between 12 and 60. Thus in some embodiments, n is between 15 and 55, such as between 20 and 50, such as between 25 and 45, such as between 30 and 40, such as 36.

Normally, S-oligonucleotides are designed so that their sequence is complementary to a target mRNA, and thus specifically induce said target mRNA's degradation. Without being bound by theory, the inventors believe that the important mechanism for phosphothioate oligonucleotides in the context of the present disclosure is their ability to bind non-specifically to a variety of proteins (see e.g. Yabukov et al., 1993; Stein et al. 1995). Accordingly, in some embodiments, the phosphorothioate oligonucleotides have no or little antisense activity; instead, they bind nucleotide sequence independent to any of the amino acid residues of PCSK9 as described herein. The skilled person knows how to optimise the design of S-oligonucleotides to obtain such phosphorothioate oligonucleotides having a nucleotide sequence that do not exhibit antisense activity.

While the length of the oligonucleotide and in particular the number of phosphorothioate linkages influences the heparin mimetic activity of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides, it appears that the nucleotide sequence within the S-oligonucleotides has essentially no influence on the heparin mimetic activity. Accordingly, any sequence can be used as long as the length of and the number of phosphorothioate bonds in the S-oligonucleotides have been optimised as is routine in the art.

Methods for synthesising phosphorothioate oligonucleotides are known in the art. As non-limiting examples, one method involves the action of a solution of elemental sulfur in carbon disulfide on a hydrogen phosphonate, while another involves sulfurizing phosphite triesters with either tetraethylthiuram disulfide (TETD) or 3H-1, 2-bensodithiol-3-one 1, 1-dioxide (BDTD).

A phosphorothioate linkage is inherently chiral. The sulfurization methods give a mixture of isomers at each incorporation site, resulting in 2n−1 isomers for an oligo of length n. Without being bound by theory, the isomer mix in any standard S-oligonucleotide preparation does not appear to affect the biological activity of the oligonucleotides. In one embodiment, the S-oligonucleotides are an isomer mix. In another embodiment, the S-oligonucleotides are provided as one isomeric form.

For oligonucleotides to resist degradation, phosphorothioate linkages do not have to be present throughout the oligonucleotide. The person skilled in the art knows how the number of phosphorothioate linkages can be adjusted.

Disorders of Lipoprotein Metabolism

Herein is also provided a compound as defined above for use as a medicament.

The compound disclosed herein is useful for treating a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism. Accordingly is also provided herein a use of the compound as defined herein for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism. There is also disclosed the compound as defined above for use in a method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism in a subject in need thereof. The sequence of PCSK9 may vary from one subject to another, e.g. individual-specific SNPs that may lead to conservative substitutions may be found in some individuals. It will be understood that compounds inhibiting binding of HSPGs to such PCSK9 variants are also within the scope of the invention.

Disorders of lipoprotein metabolism are disorders of lipid homeostasis and disorders associated therewith and include by way of example hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, hypertriglyceridaemia, sitosterolemia, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, coronary heart disease, metabolic syndrome, acute coronary syndrome, xanthoma, hypertension, angina, obesity, diabetes and vascular inflammation. Such disorders can be caused for example by defects in the structural proteins of lipoprotein particles, in the cell receptors that recognize the various types of lipoproteins, or in the enzymes that break down fats. As a result of such defects, lipids may become deposited in the walls of blood vessels.

Hypercholesterolemia (or dyslipidemia) is the presence of high levels of cholesterol in the blood. It is a form of hyperlipidemia (elevated levels of lipids in the blood) and hyperlipoproteinemia (elevated levels of lipoproteins in the blood).

Hypertriglyceridemia denotes high blood levels of triglycerides. Elevated levels of triglycerides are associated with atherosclerosis, even in the absence of hypercholesterolemia, and predispose to cardiovascular disease. Very high triglyceride levels also increase the risk of acute pancreatitis.

Sitosterolemia or phytosterolemia is a rare autosomal recessively inherited lipid metabolic disorder characterized by hyperabsorption and decreased biliary excretion of dietary sterols leading to e.g. hypercholesterolemia, tendon and tuberous xanthomas, premature development of atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis (also known as arteriosclerotic vascular disease or ASVD) is a specific form of arteriosclerosis in which an artery wall thickens as a result of invasion and accumulation of white blood cells, containing both living, active white blood cells (producing inflammation) and remnants of dead cells, including cholesterol and triglycerides. Atherosclerosis is therefore a syndrome affecting arterial blood vessels due to a chronic inflammatory response of white blood cells in the walls of arteries.

Arteriosclerosis is a condition involving thickening, hardening and loss of elasticity of the walls of arteries.

Coronary heart disease, also known as atherosclerotic artery disease, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease or ischemic heart disease, is the most common type of heart disease and cause of heart attacks. The disease is caused by plaque building up along the inner walls of the arteries of the heart, which narrows the lumen of arteries and reduces blood flow to the heart.

Metabolic syndrome is a disorder of energy utilization and storage, diagnosed by a co-occurrence of three out of five of the following medical conditions: abdominal (central) obesity, elevated blood pressure, elevated fasting plasma glucose, high serum triglycerides, and low high-density cholesterol levels. Metabolic syndrome increases the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, particularly heart failure, and diabetes. Metabolic syndrome is also known as metabolic syndrome X, cardiometabolic syndrome, syndrome X, insulin resistance syndrome, Reaven's syndrome, and CHAOS (in Australia). Metabolic syndrome and pre-diabetes appear to be the same disorder, just diagnosed by a different set of biomarkers.

Acute coronary syndrome refers to a group of conditions due to decreased blood flow in the coronary arteries such that part of the heart muscle is unable to function properly or dies.

A xanthoma is a cutaneous manifestations of lipidosis in which lipids accumulate in large foam cells within the skin. Xanthomas are associated with hyperlipidemias.

Hypertension or high blood pressure, sometimes called arterial hypertension, is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is elevated.

Angina pectoris (or angina) refers to a sensation of chest pain, pressure, or squeezing, often due to ischemia of the heart muscle from obstruction or spasm of the coronary arteries. While angina pectoris can derive from anemia, cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure, its main cause is coronary artery disease.

Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have a negative effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems, such as increased risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis.

Diabetes mellitus, commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic diseases in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. Several types of diabetes exist, including type I diabetes, type II diabetes and gestational diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is characterized by loss of the insulin-producing beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, leading to insulin deficiency. Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance, which may be combined with relatively reduced insulin secretion. The defective responsiveness of body tissues to insulin is believed to involve the insulin receptor. Gestational diabetes, which resembles type 2 diabetes, occurs in about 2-10% of all pregnancies.

In some embodiments, the disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is linked to abnormal PCSK9 plasma levels. In other embodiments, the disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is linked to abnormal LDLR levels at the surface of LDLR-expressing cells such as hepatocytes. The disorder of lipoprotein metabolism can also be linked to abnormal PCSK9 plasma levels and abnormal LDLR levels at the surface of LDLR-expressing cells such as hepatocytes. PCSK9 plasma levels vary in humans from 30 to 3000 ng/ml. Abnormal PCSK9 plasma levels refer to plasma levels of PCSK9 which are significantly different from the average levels in a healthy individual. In some embodiments, the abnormal PCSK9 plasma level is significantly higher than the average level in a healthy individual. Likewise, abnormal LDLR levels at the surface of e.g. hepatocytes refer to LDLR levels which are significantly different from the average levels in a healthy individual. In some embodiments, the abnormal LDLR level at the surface of LDLR-expressing cells such as hepatocytes is significantly lower than the average level in a healthy individual.

In some embodiments, the disorder is characterized by abnormal levels of LDL-C, in particular by elevated levels of LDL-C.

Treatment of a Lipoprotein Metabolism Disorder

An individual or a subject in need of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is an individual suffering from, suspected of suffering from or at risk of suffering from a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism. In some embodiments, the individual in need of treatment is a mammal, preferably a human.

In preferred embodiments, the disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is selected from the group consisting of dyslipidemia, hypercholesterolemia and coronary heart diseases. In a preferred embodiment, the disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is coronary heart diseases.

In some embodiments, the treatment is prophylactic.

In some embodiments, the treatment comprises a step of administering to said subject a compound as disclosed herein. The compound can be administered at a daily dosage of between 0.1 mg and 1000 mg per kg bodyweight. Thus in some embodiments, the compound is administered at a daily dosage of between 0.1 mg and 1000 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 0.2 and 900 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 0.3 and 800 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 0.5 and 700 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 1.0 and 500 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 5 and 400 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 10 and 300 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 25 and 250 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 50 and 200 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 75 and 150 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 100 and 125 mg per kg bodyweight. In some embodiments, the compound is administered at a daily dosage of between 0.1 mg and 1000 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 0.1 and 10 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 10 and 25 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 25 and 50 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 50 and 100 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 100 and 250 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 250 and 500 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 500 and 750 mg per kg bodyweight, such as between 750 and 1000 mg per kg bodyweight.

Also disclosed herein is a method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism selected from the group consisting of dyslipidemia, hypercholesterolemia and heart coronary diseases in an individual in need thereof, the method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. providing a tissue sample or a plasma sample isolated from         said individual,     -   ii. determining the levels of LDLR in said tissue and/or the         levels of PCSK9 and/or the levels of LDL-C in said plasma         sample,     -   iii. correlating the expression level of step ii) with the         levels of a control tissue sample or a control plasma sample,     -   iv. assessing a treatment regime,     -   v. administering to the individual a composition comprising a         therapeutically effective amount of a compound as disclosed         herein.

In some embodiments, the method comprises the steps of:

-   -   i. providing a tissue sample isolated from said individual,     -   ii. determining the levels of LDLR of said tissue,     -   iii. correlating the expression level of step ii) with the         levels of a control tissue sample,     -   iv. assessing a treatment regime,     -   v. administering to the individual a composition comprising a         therapeutically effective amount of a compound as disclosed         herein.

Thus in some embodiments, a composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of a compound as disclosed herein is administered to the individual if the levels of LDLR at the surface of the cells of said tissue are abnormal. In some embodiments, abnormal levels of LDLR are reduced levels of LDLR. In some embodiments, the tissue sample comprises LDLR-expressing cells such as hepatocytes and the levels of LDLR at the surface of said cells are measured.

In other embodiments, the method comprises the steps of:

-   -   i. providing a plasma sample isolated from said individual,     -   ii. determining the levels of PCSK9 and/or the levels of LDL-C         in said plasma sample,     -   iii. correlating the expression level of step ii) with the         levels of a control plasma sample,     -   iv. assessing a treatment regime,     -   v. administering to the individual a composition comprising a         therapeutically effective amount of a compound as disclosed         herein.

Thus in some embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount of a composition comprising a compound as disclosed herein is administered to the individual if the levels of LDL-C and/or the levels of PCSK9 in the plasma sample are abnormal. In some embodiments, abnormal levels of LDL-C are increased levels of LDL-C. In some embodiments, the tissue sample comprises LDLR-expressing cells such as hepatocytes and the levels of LDLR at the surface of said cells are measured.

Also disclosed herein is a method of inhibiting degradation of LDLR, said method comprising administering a compound as defined herein. In particular, the compound may be a compound of general formula (I) as defined herein above.

In some embodiments, the compound is a heparin analogue or mimetic such as Fondaparinux. In another embodiment, the compound is pentosan. In yet another embodiment, the compound is suramin. In yet another embodiment, the compound is dextran sulphate. In yet another embodiment, the compound is a low molecular weight heparin such as dalteparin sodium or tinzaparin sodium. In yet another embodiment, the compound is a phosphorothioate oligonucleotide as defined herein above.

Pharmaceutical Composition

Also disclosed herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one compound as defined herein. In some embodiments, the composition comprises one compound as disclosed herein. In other embodiments, the composition comprises two compounds or more, such as three compounds or more, such as four compounds or more, such as five compounds or more.

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises at least one of:

-   -   an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to LDLR;     -   a statin;     -   cholestyramine     -   a cholesterol absorption inhibitor e.g. ezetimibe.

Thus in some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises at least one compound as defined herein and at least one additional compound selected from the group consisting of an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to LDLR, a statin or cholestyramine. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one compound as defined herein and an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to LDLR. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one compound as defined herein and a statin. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one compound as defined herein and cholestyramine. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one compound as defined herein, an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to LDLR and a statin. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one compound as defined herein, an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to LDLR and cholestyramine. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one compound as defined herein, cholestyramine and a statin. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises one compound as defined herein, an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to LDLR, a statin and cholestyramine.

The pharmaceutical composition may optionally comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers excipients, and may be prepared by conventional techniques, e.g. as described in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 1995, edited by E. W. Martin, Mack Publishing Company, 19th edition, Easton, Pa. The compositions may appear in conventional forms, for example capsules, tablets, aerosols, solutions, suspensions or topical applications. Typically, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be formulated for parenteral administration e.g., by intravenous or subcutaneous injection, and may be presented in unit dose form in ampoules, pre-filled syringes, small volume infusion or in multi-dose containers with an added preservative. The compositions may take such forms as suspensions, solutions, or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, for example solutions in aqueous polyethylene glycol. The compositions may be suitable for oral ingestion. This is particularly relevant for small molecule compositions. Examples of oily or non-aqueous carriers, diluents, solvents or vehicles include propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils (e.g., olive oil), and injectable organic esters (e.g., ethyl oleate), and may contain formulatory agents such as preserving, wetting, emulsifying or suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. Alternatively, the active ingredient may be in powder form, obtained by aseptic isolation of sterile solid or by lyophilisation from solution for constitution before use with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile, pyrogen-free water. Oils useful in parenteral formulations include petroleum, animal, vegetable, or synthetic oils. Specific examples of oils useful in such formulations include peanut, soybean, sesame, cottonseed, corn, olive, petrolatum, and mineral. Suitable fatty acids for use in parenteral formulations include oleic acid, stearic acid, and isostearic acid. Ethyl oleate and isopropyl myristate are examples of suitable fatty acid esters. The parenteral formulations typically will contain from about 0.0001 to about 25%, such as from about 0.5 to about 25%, by weight of the active ingredient in solution. Preservatives and buffers may be used. In order to minimise or eliminate irritation at the site of injection, such compositions may contain one or more nonionic surfactants having a hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of from about 12 to about 17. The quantity of surfactant in such formulations will typically range from about 0.000001 to about 15% by weight, such as from about 0.000001 to about 5% by weight or from about 5 to about 15% by weight. Suitable surfactants include polyethylene sorbitan fatty acid esters, such as sorbitan monooleate and the high molecular weight adducts of ethylene oxide with a hydrophobic base, formed by the condensation of propylene oxide with propylene glycol. The parenteral formulations can be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose sealed containers, such as ampoules and vials, and can be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid excipient, for example, water, for injections, immediately prior to use.

The main route of drug delivery according to this invention is however parenteral in order to introduce the agent into the blood stream to ultimately target the relevant tissue. The agent may also be administered to cross any mucosal membrane of an animal to which the biologically active substance is to be given, e.g. in the nose, vagina, eye, mouth, genital tract, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, or rectum, preferably the mucosa of the nose, or mouth.

In a preferred embodiment the agent of the invention is administered parenterally, that is by intravenous, intramuscular, intraspinal, subcutaneous, intranasal, intrarectal, intravaginal or intraperitoneal administration. The subcutaneous and intramuscular forms of parenteral administration are generally preferred. Appropriate dosage forms for such administration may be prepared by conventional techniques. The compounds may also be administered by inhalation, which is by intranasal and oral inhalation administration. Appropriate dosage forms for such administration, such as an aerosol formulation or a metered dose inhaler, may be prepared by conventional techniques.

In one embodiment the pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention is formulated for parenteral administration such as by injection.

In a further embodiment the pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention is formulated for intravenous, intramuscular, intraspinal, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, a bolus or a continuous administration.

The rate and frequency of the administration may be determined by the physician from a case to case basis. In one embodiment the administration occurs at intervals of 30 minutes to 24 hours, such as at intervals of 1 to 6 hours, such as once daily.

The duration of the treatment may vary depending on severity of the disorder. In one embodiment the duration of the treatment is from 1 day to 28 days, such as from 2 days to 25 days, such as from 5 days to 20 days, such as from 7 days to 15 days. In chronic cases the duration of the treatment may be lifelong.

The dosage can be determined by the physician in charge based on the characteristics of the patient and the means and mode of administration. In one embodiment of the present invention, the dosage of the active compound of the pharmaceutical composition as defined herein above, is between 0.1 mg and 1000 mg per kg bodyweight.

The dosage may be administered as a bolus administration or as a continuous administration. In relation to bolus administration the pharmaceutical composition may be administered at intervals of 30 minutes to 24 hours, such as once daily.

In some embodiments, the pH of the composition is between pH 4 and pH 10.

In some embodiments, the composition is formulated for oral administration.

In some embodiments, the composition is formulated for parenteral administration. In specific embodiments, the parenteral administration is by injection. Such parenteral administration may be intravenous, intramuscular, intraspinal, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, a bolus or a continuous administration.

Method of Selecting an Antibody

Also disclosed herein is a method of selecting an antibody specifically recognising and binding an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), said method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. administering to a mammal a polypeptide fragment of PCSK9 or         a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide fragment of PCSK9         comprising at least one amino acid residue of the domain         consisting of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO: 1,         such as at least 5, such as at least 10, such as at least 15,         such as at least 20, such as at least 25, such as at least 30,         such as at least 35, such as at least 40, such as at least 45,         such as at least 50, such as at least 55, such as at least 60,         such as at least 65, such as at least 70, such as at least 75,         such as at least 80, such as at least all amino acids of the         domain consisting of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO:         1;     -   ii. identifying and selecting antibodies recognising said         polypeptide, and     -   iii. determining whether said selected antibodies are capable of         displacing one or more reference antibodies in a competitive         ELISA assay.

Methods for administering the polypeptide fragment of PCSK9 or the polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide fragment of PCSK9 are known in the art and include immunisation of the mammal or phage display.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises a step of selecting antibodies capable of displacing at least one of said reference antibodies. The reference antibodies are antibodies capable of binding to PCSK9 or a fragment thereof.

The step of determining whether said selected antibodies are capable of displacing one or more reference antibodies in a competitive ELISA comprises the steps of:

-   -   i. providing PCSK9 or a fragment thereof comprising the epitope         recognised by said reference antibody; and     -   ii. adding a test antibody and said reference antibody to said         PCSK9 or fragment thereof, wherein either the test antibody or         the reference antibody is labelled with a detectable label or         both antibodies are labelled with different detectable labels;         and     -   iii. detecting the presence of the detectable label at PCSK9;     -   thereby detecting whether the test antibody is capable of         displacing the reference antibody.

The method may further comprise testing the antibodies to determine whether they are capable of inhibiting LDLR degradation and selecting antibodies capable of inhibiting LDLR degradation.

Also disclosed herein is a method of selecting a peptide or a heparin analogue or mimetic capable of inhibiting binding of HSPGs such as heparin to PCSK9, said method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. providing a plurality of peptides or heparin analogues or         mimetics;     -   ii. incubating said plurality of peptides or heparin analogues         or mimetics with cells derived from an LDLR-expressing cell line         such as a hepatocyte-derived cell line in a medium;     -   iii. determining the levels of PCSK9 in said medium and/or the         levels of LDLR of said cells;     -   iv. selecting the peptides or heparin analogues or mimetics         resulting in the highest levels of PCSK9 and/or LDLR as         determined in step iii.

In some embodiments, the levels of PCSK9 are the levels of PCSK9 detached from the cell surface.

Compounds Capable of Binding the Compounds Disclosed Herein

Also disclosed herein are compounds capable of selectively binding the compound as defined above. In some embodiments, the compound capable of selectively binding the compound as defined above is an antibody.

Method for producing the antibody disclosed herein A method for producing the antibody as defined herein, said method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i. administering to a mammal a protein or a polynucleotide         encoding a protein comprising the HSPG binding domain of PCSK9         or a fragment thereof or a functional equivalent thereof;     -   ii. selecting said antibody if it is able to bind to PCSK9 (SEQ         ID NO: 1);     -   iii. selecting said antibody if it is unable to bind to mutated         PCSK9, wherein said mutated PCSK9 is unable to bind to HSPG.

Methods for administering the protein or a polynucleotide encoding a protein comprising the HSPG binding domain of PCSK9 or a fragment thereof or a functional equivalent thereof are known in the art and include immunisation of the mammal or phage display.

In some embodiments, said mutated PCSK9 is mutated at least at one of positions 93, 96, 97, 104, 105, 136, 139, 165 or 167. In some embodiments, the mutations are alanine substitutions. In some embodiments, two or more of the amino acid residues at positions 93, 96, 97, 104, 105, 136, 139, 165 or 167 are mutated.

In specific embodiments, the mutated PCSK9 is selected from the group consisting of mutants R93A, R96A, R97A, R104A, R105A, K136A, H139A, R165A or R167A, where the positions are the positions of PCSK9 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1. In one particular embodiment, the mutated PCSK9 is mutated at positions R93, R96, R97, R104, R105 and H139 of PCSK9. Preferably, the mutations are mutations to alanine.

In some embodiments, the mammal to which a protein comprising the HSPG binding domain of PCSK9 or a fragment thereof or a functional equivalent thereof is administered is a rodent, such as a mouse, a rat, a hamster or a guinea pig.

The method may further comprise isolating antibody producing cells from said mammal, preparing hybridoma cells from said antibody producing cells, cultivating said hybridomas and isolating antibodies produced by said hybridomas. Methods to isolate antibodies from hybridoma cells are known in the art.

In some embodiments, the method is for producing an antibody as disclosed herein, and comprises the steps of transfecting a host cell with a nucleic acid construct encoding said antibody. The antibody may be produced by a recombinant cell. Suitable recombinant cells can be microorganisms selected from the group comprising bacteria and eukaryotic microorganisms.

In some embodiments, the microorganism is a bacterium selected from the group comprising Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus zeae, Bacillus subtilis, Streptomyces lividans, Staphylococcus carnosus, Bacillus megaterium and Corynebacterium glutamicum.

In other embodiments, the microorganism is a eukaryotic microorganism selected from the group comprising Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, Pichia pastoris, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Yarrowia lipolytica and Kluyveromyces lactis.

The host cell can also be selected from the group comprising plant cells and animal cells. In some embodiments, the host cells is a plant cell selected from the group comprising Arabidopsis sp., pea, rice, maize, tobacco, barley, or seeds thereof. In other embodiments, the host cell is an animal cell derived from a mammal selected from the group comprising Chinese Hamster Ovary, mouse and human. In other embodiments, the animal cell is derived from an insect or an avian cell line.

The method may also comprise the steps of identifying and selecting the antibody.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Mapping of the HSPG Binding Site in PCSK9

We examined the electrostatic surface of PCSK9 (PDB: 2PMVV) (FIG. 2B), and identified a putative heparin binding site composed of six surface exposed basic residues located in the PCSK9 prodomain. The binding site is formed by arginine (R) residues at position 93, 96, 97, 104, and 105 and histidine (H) at position 139, which show perfect pairing with sulfate groups of a heparin pentasaccharide (SANORG) (Herbert et al., 1996) (Herbert et al., 1996) (FIGS. 2B and 2C). The site is found opposite to the LDLR binding surface located in the inactive catalytic domain of PCSK9 (FIG. 2A). Docking of heparin fragment onto a co-crystal structure of PCSK9 in complex with LDLR (PDB:3P5B) suggested that HSPG binding allows subsequent PCSK9:LDLR complex formation (FIG. 3C).

Example 2: Heparinase Treatment Inhibits PCSK9 Cell Surface Association In Vitro and Protects the LDL Receptor Against PCSK9-Induced Degradation In Vivo

We speculated that HSPG might be involved in the capture of PCSK9. Thus, we treated human hepatocyte-derived HepG2 cells stably expressing PCSK9 with heparinase I. The enzyme heparinase I cleaves heparan sulfate GAG chains at the 1,4 O-linkage between uronic acid and D-glucosamine, thereby removing cell surface heparan sulfate chains.

HepG2 cells stably transfected with PCSK9 were seeded at 50.000 cells per coverslip and incubated overnight before addition of heparinase I (Sigma Aldrich/H2519) in PBS (0.0002 UN/ml) or PBS alone. Cells were incubated for 1 h. at 37□C, before fixation in 4% paraformaldehyd and immunostaining of non-permeabilized cells with primary and secondary antibodies. Nuclei were visualized with Hoechst dye (Sigma Aldrich). Images were acquired on a Zeiss LSM780.

Indeed, treatment resulted in a marked decrease in the intensity of surface PCSK9 staining, suggesting that HSPG are critical for PCSK9 cell binding (FIG. 2D).

To test the effect of enzymatic removal of heparan sulfate GAGs on PCSK9 activity in vivo 10-12 week-old male BALB6/cJRj mice were infused with heparinase I (30 U) administered through a tail vein catheter 5 min prior injection of PCSK9 (10 μg). In control mice the heparinase injection and/or the PCSK9 injection were replaced with an injection of 0.9% saline. During heparinase infusion, mice were lightly anaesthetized with isoflurane continuously administered through a mask. One-hour post injection mice were sacrificed and liver tissue samples were harvested and snap frozen before extraction of proteins and evaluation of LDLR levels by Western blot (FIG. 10 A) Injection of heparinase I completely protected LDLR from PCSK9-induced degradation, demonstrating that HSPGs are instrumental in PCSK9 induced degradation of LDLR in vivo (FIGS. 10 A and B).

To verify the direct interaction between PCSK9 and heparan sulfate GAG chains, we employed affinity chromatography using Sepharose beads covalently coupled with heparin.

Purified PCSK9 was loaded onto a 5 ml HiTrap Heparin HP column (GE Healthcare) in PBS. The column was connected to an Akta Prime and washed with 5 column volumes of 10 mM NaH2PO4 (pH 7.4). PCSK9 was eluted using a linear gradient of 10 mM NaH2PO4 (pH 7.4) and 2 M NaCl and fractions were analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Based on the measured conductivity, the elution profile was transformed to a function of NaCl concentration using the transformation coefficient 0.065 mS/mM NaCl. PCSK9 was retained on the heparin column and eluted at a NaCl concentration of approximately 500 mM (FIG. 2E), indicating a strong and highly specific interaction with heparin.

In a different experiment, conditioned media from HepG2 cells were incubated with Heparin Sepharose C_(L)-6B beads (GE Healthcare) in 10 mM NaH2PO4 (binding buffer). Following overnight incubation on a rotor at 4□C, beads were washed in binding buffer before batch elution of heparin bound proteins in increasing concentration of NaCl. PCSK9 in input, flow through, and elution fractions were evaluated by Western blotting.

We found that endogenous PCSK9 from conditioned media of HepG2 cells also bound heparin Sepharose and showed similar elution profile as that of ApoE, a well-established HSPG binding protein (FIG. 3D).

Example 3: Identification of Residues Important for the PCSK9/HSPG Interaction

To further narrow down critical residues involved in the PCSK9/HSPG interaction, PCSK9 variants with point mutations in the HSPG binding motif were cloned and expressed. Mutations were introduced by PCR in order to replace the charged amino acid arginine (Arg/R), lysine (Lys/K) and histidine (His/H) identified by 3D structure model docking by neutral residues such as alanines (Ala/A).

The human wild type and the following alanine substitution variants were analysed:

Wild type PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1)

Mutant R93

Mutant R96R97

Mutant R104R105

Mutant R165R167

Mutant R93R104R105H139A

Mutant R93R96R97R104R105H139

Since improper folded PCSK9 is generally not cleaved in the propeptide and therefore retained in the endoplasmic reticulum, correct folding of the PCSK9 mutant variants can be evaluated by monitoring their processing and secretion. Processing of proPCSK9 into mature protein and secretion of mature PCSK9 variants were assessed by transient transfection of Chinese Ovary Hamster (CHO) cells followed by Western blot analysis of PCSK9 in cell lysates and in the surrounding medium (FIG. 3A).

The ability of the PCSK9 mutant proteins to bind to heparin was assessed by affinity chromatography followed by Western blotting with anti-PCSK9 antibody. Conditioned media from CHO cells transfected with PCSK9 variants of interest were incubated with Heparin Sepharose CL-6B beads (GE Healthcare) in 10 mM NaH2PO4 (binding buffer). Following overnight incubation on a rotor at 4° C., beads were washed in binding buffer before batch elution of heparin bound proteins in increasing concentration of NaCl. PCSK9 in input, flow through, and elution fractions were evaluated by Western blotting.

Mutants R93, R96R97 and R104R105 show less affinity for heparin compared to wild-type PCSK9 or mutant R165R167, and mutants R93R104R105H139 and R93R96R97R104R105H139 do not bind heparin and are found exclusively in the flow-through (FIG. 3B).

Example 4: PCSK9 Variant with Mutated HSPG-Binding Domain Fails to Induce LDL Receptor Degradation

Purified PCSK9 variants were tested in a cell assay to test their ability to induce degradation of LDLR compared to wild-type PCSK9. Induction of LDLR degradation was analyzed by incubation of HepG2 cells with wild type PCSK9 (WT) or the above PCSK9 mutants and LDLR levels were assessed by Western blotting. HepG2 cells were seeded at a density 250.000 cells per well in 12-well plates. After overnight incubation, the media was replaced with fresh media containing PCSK9 WT or mutant R93R96R97R104R105H139. Cells were harvested and lysed following 18 hours incubation and LDLR levels were assessed by Western blotting and quantification by densitometry.

The LDLR levels in cells incubated with mutant R93R96R97R104R105H139 were markedly (approximately twice) higher compared to the levels measured in cells incubated with WT PCSK9 (FIGS. 4A and B), showing that mutations within the HSPG-binding domain resulted in reduced PCSK9-induced LDLR degradation.

Example 5: Heparin and Heparin Analogues Prevent PCSK9:LDLR Complex Formation

Using proximity ligation assay (PLA), we tested whether exogenously added heparin competes with cell surface HSPG for the binding of endogenous PCSK9 and thereby prevent PCSK9:LDLR complex formation (Soderberg et al., 2006).

The PLA (Duolink□II, Olink Bioscience) was performed according to manufacturer's protocol using anti-PCSK9 (R&D systems/AF3888), and anti-LDLR (Abcam/ab52818) as primary antibodies. PCSK9 and LDLR located within 30 nm from each other are visualized by oligonucleotide-conjugated secondary antibodies that hybridize with circle-forming oligonucleotides thereby priming rolling circle amplification. The amplified DNA is visualized by addition of complementary fluorescently-labeled oligonucleotides (Soderberg et al., 2006)

Using this assay on endogenous cell surface PCSK9 and LDLR in non-permeabilized HepG2 cells, abundant clusters of PCSK9:LDLR complexes were observed (FIG. 5D). These were markedly reduced both in numbers and intensity upon incubation with heparin, suggesting that PCSK9 binding to HSPG is instrumental in the subsequent complex formation with cell surface LDLR.

We found that incubation of HepG2 cells with heparin (50 U/ml for 18 hrs) resulted in two to three-fold higher level of LDLR protein (FIG. 5A-5B), and a similar effect was observed with two therapeutic preparations of low-molecular weight heparins (FIG. 8A).

The increase in cellular LDLR in heparin-treated HepG2 cells was dose dependent and accompanied by a marked increase in PCSK9 in the medium (FIG. 6B). The PCSK9 concentration was measured using Human (DPC900) Quantikine ELISA kit from R&D Systems according to manufacturer's protocol.

The increase in cellular LDLR and extracellular PCSK9 induced by heparin occurred at the post translational level as we observed no change in mRNA, except for PCSK9 at the highest heparin concentration (FIG. 6C).

RNA extraction from HepG2 cells was performed using NucleoSpin RNA preparation kit (Macherey-Nagel), following cDNA synthesis from 0.5 μg RNA template by iScript□ cDNA synthesis kit (BIORAD). Real time PCR was performed with iQ SYBR□ Green supermix and iTaq□ polymerase using the following primers to detect transcripts of LDLR (forward primer 5′ACGGCGTCTCTTCCTATGACA3′, reverse primer 5′CCCTTGGTATCCGCAACAGA3′), PCSK9 (forward primer 5′CCTGGAGCGGATTAC-CCCT3′, reverse primer 5′CTGTATGCTGGTGTCTAGGAGA3′), AND GAPDH (forward primer 5′ACAACTTTGGTATCGTGGAAGG3′, reverse primer 5′GCCATCACGCCACA-GTTTC3′).

We found that 25 U/ml heparin effectively antagonized PCSK9 activity as evident from approximately 2.5-fold increase in LDLR levels (FIG. 8B) despite the two-fold increase in PCSK9 mRNA level.

HepG2 cells incubated 24 h with heparin (50 U/ml) showed increased levels of LDLR as evaluated by Western blotting (FIG. 5A). LDLR levels were also quantified by densitometry (n=4) (FIG. 5B). Incubation with heparin also resulted in increased PCSK9 levels in the medium as measured by ELISA (FIG. 5C).

Heparin does not interfere with the direct interaction between PCSK9 and LDLR as analysed by a PCSK9/LDLR binding assay (FIG. 6 A) (BPS Bioscience) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Briefly, microtiter plate wells coated with LDLR extracellular domain were incubated with biotinylated PCSK9 in the presence of heparin (5 or 50 U/ml) or anti-PCSK9 antibody raised against the LDLR binding domain of PCSK9 (BPS Bioscience #71207). Following washing, wells were incubated with horse radish peroxidase (HRP) labeled-streptavidin and binding of PCSK9 to the LDLR extracellular domain was assessed by addition of HRP substrate and evaluation of signal using a chemiluminescence microplate reader.

The interaction between PCSK9 and LDLR was unaffected by addition of heparin indicate that binding of heparin to PCSK9 results in reduced LDLR degradation by preventing the interaction of PCSK9 with cell surface HSPGs.

HepG2 cells incubated 24 h with Fondaparinux (Arixtra) (25, 100 or 250 μg/ml) showed increased levels of LDLR as evaluated by Western blotting (FIG. 7). These results indicate that binding of a heparin analogue such as Fondaparinux to PCSK9 results in reduced LDLR degradation by preventing the interaction of PCSK9 with cell surface HSPGs.

Example 6: Heparin Mimetics Prevent PCSK9:LDLR Interaction

Several molecules mimicking the structure of heparin have been developed over the last 100 years for a number of therapeutic applications, seven of which are currently in clinical use. These are denoted heparin mimetics and belong to diverse chemical classes, including various oligosaccharides, oligonucleotides and naphthalene derivatives. We tested a subset of heparin mimetics for their ability to bind PCSK9 and increase LDLR in HepG2 cells (FIG. 9).

Equilibrium binding affinities between PCSK9 and ligands (suramin, dextran sulfate 5000, dextran 5000, pentosan sulfate and S-dC-36) were assessed using Microscale Thermophoresis (MST) (Jerabek-Willemsen et al., 2011). PCSK9 was labeled using the MO-L003 Monolith Blue-NHS labeling kit (NanoTemper Technologies) and a labeling efficiency of 1:1 molar ratio of protein to dye was achieved. PCSK9 was applied at a final concentration of 100 nM. The unlabeled binding partner was titrated in 1:1 dilutions (in PBS+0.05% Tween-20) where the highest concentrations were 15.4 mM for suramin, 2.3 mM for dextran sulfate 5000, 2.3 mM for dextran 5000, 16.3 mM for pentosan sulfate and 250 μM for S-dC-36. MST measurements were performed in standard-treated capillaries (NanoTemper Technologies) on a Monolith NT.115 instrument (NanoTemper Technologies) using 20% LED and 80% MST power. Laser on and off times were 5 s and 35 s, respectively. Negative controls were performed using 100 nM of labelled PCSK9 in MST buffer in all 16 capillaries under the same conditions as mentioned above. Binding curves were obtained from the temperature-jump phase at 80% MST power for suramin, dextran sulfate 5000 and S-dC-36; and from the thermophoresis+temperature-jump phase at 80% MST power for pentosan sulfate. For each binding partner, the sigmoidal dose-response curves were fitted with GraphPad Prism 6 to yield an average KD value. As fluorescence quenching of PCSK9 was observed in the presence of high concentrations of suramin, a denaturation test was performed by pre-treating PCSK9 with 10% SDS and then heating the samples for 15 min at 90° C. prior to analysis on the MST apparatus. This eliminated the quenching effect, indicating that the fluorescence quenching of PCSK9 under non-denaturing conditions was due to an actual ligand-binding event.

The sulfated oligosaccharides dextran sulfate (FIG. 9C) and pentosan sulfate (FIG. 9F) both bound directly to PCSK9 as determined using MST with an affinity of 179.5 μM and 381.3 μM, respectively, and resulted in dose-dependent increase in cellular LDLR (FIG. 9A-B and FIG. 9D-E), reaching a plateau of around 400% compared to vehicle control, and markedly superior to the maximal effect of statins in this assay. The interaction was dependent on the presence of sulfate groups as non-sulfated dextran showed no affinity for PCSK9. The sulfated naphthalene derivative suramin, an antiparasitic drug in African sleeping sickness, binds PCSK9 with an affinity of 190 μM (FIG. 9H) resulted in up to fifteen-fold increase in LDLR (FIG. 9A, 9G), accompanied by increased cellular uptake of fluorescently labelled LDL particles (FIG. 12). We further tested a 36-mer single strand DNA molecule and found that it bound PCSK9 with a KD of 4.8 μM (FIG. 9K) and showed potent inhibitory effects at this concentration range (FIG. 9I-J).

Example 7: Therapeutic Preparations of Low-Molecular Weight Heparins Protect LDLR Against PCSK9 Induced Degradation

HepG2 cells incubated overnight with the low-molecular weight heparin preparation fragmin (1-100 U/ml) or Innohep (1-100 U/ml) showed increased levels of LDLR as evaluated by Western blotting (FIG. 8A). The effect of fragmin and Innohep were comparable to the effect of heparin (FIG. 5A) and the penta-saccharide Arixtra (FIG. 7).

These results show that structure-based drug design using the heparin:PCKS9 complex as a template is a feasible approach in the development of a small molecule PCSK9 inhibitor.

Example 8: Heparin Protects the LDLR Against PCSK9 Induced Degradation In Vivo

Mice (BALB6/cJRj) were subjected to a single intravenous administration (tail vein) of 10 μg human recombinant PCSK9 alone or in combination with heparin (50 U). One hour post injection mice were sacrificed and liver tissues were collected. Western blot analysis of LDLR in membrane protein preparations showed a significant higher level of liver LDLR in mice co-injected with heparin compared to mice injected with PCSK9 alone (FIG. 8B, quantified in FIG. 8C).

These results show that the PCSK9:heparin interaction may provide a framework for the development of small molecule PCSK9 inhibitors.

Example 9: Polyclonal Antibodies Directed Against the HSPG Binding of PCSK9 Inhibit PCSK9 Activity

Polyclonal antibodies were produced by immunization of three rats with DNA encoding chimeric rat PCSK9 containing the human HSPG binding domain. Serum samples obtained from immunized animals were tested for PCSK9-binding antibodies by immunoprecipitation.

Antibodies from 1 μl immune or preimmune rat serum were immobilized on GammaBind beads (GE Healthcare), and used for precipitation (3 h at 4□C) of 35S human PCSK9 from conditioned media of metabolically labeled HEK293 transiently transfected with PCSK9 as described previously (Gustafsen et al., 2014). Following 3 washes in TBS containing 0.1% Triton X100, precipitated proteins were eluted by boiling samples in NUPAGE sample buffer supplemented with 20 mM dithioerythreitol (DTE), separated by SDS-PAGE, and visualized by phosphorimaging.

Immune serum from all animals specifically precipitated 35-S labeled PCSK9. No pull down of PCSK9 was detected in control immunoprecipitations performed with serum from pre-immune animals (FIG. 8D).

IgG purified from immune and pre-immune serum samples were tested using an in vitro model of PCSK9 induced LDLR degradation in which HepG2 cells incubated with immune

IgG showed a markedly increase in LDLR levels (FIG. 8E). These results indicate that antibodies targeting the HSPG binding domain of PCSK9 efficiently inhibit PCSK9 activity.

Example 10: Generation of PCSK9 Inhibitory mAbs Directed at the PCSK9 HSPG Binding Domain

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the HSPG binding domain in PCSK9 were produced by Aldevron Freiburg, Germany by immunization of three rats with DNA encoding chimeric rat PCSK9 containing the human HSPG binding domain. Monoclonal antibody producing hybridoma clones were obtained by fusion of rat spleen lymphocytes with myeloma cells and subsequent single cell subcloning of antibody producing cells before collection of mAb containing hybridoma supernatants. The individual mAbs were tested by immunoprecipitation of 35S human PCSK9 using 500 μl conditioned media from the mAb producing hybridoma clones immobilized on GammaBind beads (GE Healthcare). We found that 16 of 26 tested mAbs specifically precipitated native 35S human PCSK9 (FIG. 8F).

Further functional testing of PCSK9 binding mAbs in HepG2 cells showed that 12 of the clones inhibit PSCK9 activity and increase cellular levels of LDLR approximately two fold (FIG. 8G).

These 12 clones were tested to see whether they can bind an R93R96R97R104R105H139 PCSK9 mutant (FIG. 8H). Four of the clones which were able to increase cellular levels of LDLR by approximately two fold were not able to bind this mutant (compare mAb 1G8, 5E11, 8HA and 10E5 in FIGS. 8F, 8G and 8H). Further testing showed that mAb 10E5 precipitates WT PCSK9, as well as variants R96R97 and R104R105 (FIG. 8I), whereas mAbs 1G8 and 5E11 recognize only WT PCSK9 (FIG. 8I). These results demonstrate that these three clones specifically bind to the HSPG binding domain.

Clones 5E11 and 8HA were sequenced (SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6 and 8).

Example 11: Generation of Humanized Monoclonal Antibodies for Clinical Testing

Monoclonal antibodies are generated by immunization of rats with DNA encoding a chimeric protein composed of rat PCSK9 and the human PCSK9 HSPG binding motif, candidate antibodies are found by screening for binding to human PCSK9 in an ELISA assay. Candidate antibodies are characterized with respect to epitope, affinity to human PCSK9 and recognition of native PCSK9. Selected candidate antibodies are tested for their ability to inhibit PCSK9 function in a HepG2 cell culture assay and the most promising antibody is tested in a transgenic mouse expressing human PCSK9 under the control of the endogenous murine PCSK9 promoter. Upon administration, analysing LDL receptor levels in the liver and cholesterol in plasma will assess the PCSK9 neutralizing effect of the antibody. The lead candidate is humanized and prepared for clinical testing.

Example 12: Reducing LDL Cholesterol Using an Antibody Directed Against the HSPG Binding Site of PCSK9

A patient with elevated LDL cholesterol levels is prescribed an active compound consisting of a humanized antibody directed against the HSPG binding site in human PCSK9. The patient receives subcutaneous injections of 25-500 mg of the composition at intervals of 1-28 days. Marked reductions in LDL-C levels are observed. These data show that parenteral administration of an antibody directed against the HSPG binding site in human PCSK9 can lead to reduction in LDL-C levels in a subject.

Example 13: Reducing LDL Cholesterol in a Patient not Responding to Statin Treatment

A patient with elevated LDL cholesterol is prescribed a statin treatment. The patient does not respond to the statin treatment. The patient is then prescribed a treatment with subcutaneous injections of 25-500 mg of a composition comprising a humanized antibody directed against the HSPG binding site in human PCSK9. The injections take place at intervals of 1-28 days. Marked reductions in LDL-C levels are observed, showing that parenteral administration of an antibody directed against the HSPG binding site in human PCSK9 can lead to reduction in LDL-C levels in a patient non-responsive to statin treatment.

Example 14: Reducing LDL Cholesterol Using a Small Molecule Compound Directed Against the HSPG Binding Site of PCSK9

A patient with elevated LDL cholesterol levels is prescribed administration of a small molecule compound that is designed to block the HSPG binding site in human PCSK9. The compound is administered orally at a dosis of 0.1-30 mg/kg. Marked reductions in LDL-C levels are observed, showing that oral administration of a small molecule designed to block the HSPG binding site in human PCSK9 can lead to reduction in LDL-C levels in a patient.

Example 15: Generation of Antibodies Against the HSPG Binding Site in PCSK9

A purified mouse PCSK9 chimera is constructed where the mouse HSPG binding sequence stretch is substituted with the human sequence stretch (encompassed within amino acid residues 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO: 1). A mouse is immunized with the chimera. Clones are subsequently selected by direct ELISA in two steps. In a first step, antibodies able to bind wild-type human PCSK9 are selected using microtiter wells coated with purified wild-type, human PCSK9. In a second selection step, microtiter wells are coated with mutant, human PCSK9 unable to bind HSPG. Antibodies able to bind the mutant PCSK9 are selected. The affinity of selected antibodies against immobilized human PCSK9 is evaluated by determining their K_(d). Antibodies are subsequently tested for their ability to inhibit PCSK9-induced LDLR degradation in HepG2 cells.

Antibodies directed to the HSPG binding domain of human PCSK9 and capable of inhibiting PCSK9-induced LDLR degradation are thus selected.

Example 16: Selection of Antibodies Directed Against the HSPG Binding Site Using Biacore

The affinity and specificity of antibodies directed against the HSPG binding site in PCSK9 are evaluated using surface plasmon resonance performed on a Biacore 3000 Instrument equipped with CM5 sensor chips activated as described (Munck Petersen et al., 1999). Wild-type human PCSK9 or human mutant PCSK9 unable to bind HSPG are immobilized to densities 74-83 fmol/mm² in 10 mM sodium acetate, pH 4.0, and the remaining coupling sites are blocked with 1 M ethanolamine. Antibody samples are injected at 5 μl/min at 25° C. in 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 1.5 mM CaCl₂), 1 mM EGTA, and 0.005% Tween 20 (CaHBS). Binding is expressed in relative response units (RU), calculated as the difference in response between the immobilized protein flow cell and the corresponding control flow cell. Kinetic parameters are determined, e.g. using BIAevaluation 4.1.

Example 17

PCSK9 mAbs directed against the HSPG binding domain is tested using a coronary artery disease mouse model heterozygote for LDLR (LDLR+/−) with expression of human PCSK9 under control of the endogenous murine PCSK9 promoter. Western type diet fed animals is treated with PCSK9 mAb (10 mg/kg) every third week for a time period of 6-8 months. At the end of the experiment mice are sacrificed and atherosclerotic lesions in aorta are evaluated by microscopy. Plasma LDL-c is evaluated by ELISA every second months during the experiment.

Example 18: Combination Therapy Using Antibodies Directed Against the HSPG and LDLR Binding Sites

A humanized antibody directed to the HSPG-binding domain of PCSK9 (among amino acids 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO: 1) is used in combination with an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to the LDLR. A synergistic effect is observed, whereby lower amounts of each antibody need to be administered, leading to reduced side-effects.

Example 19: Reducing LDL Cholesterol in a Patient not Responding to Statin Treatment

A patient receives statin treatment against elevated LDL-C levels. However, after an initial drop in LDL-C levels, and due to the statin-induced increased expression of PCSK9, the treatment does not succeed in significantly reducing LDL-C levels.

In addition to the statin, the patient is administered a compound inhibiting binding of HSPGs to PCSK9. The administration occurs weekly and with a low dose (25-150 mg) of the compound in combination with statins. Marked reductions in LDL-C levels are observed, and the desired level of LDL-C is reached.

This example shows that supplementing a statin-based treatment with administration of an antibody directed against the HSPG-binding domain of PCSK9 can successfully reduce LDL-C levels.

Example 20: PCSK9 with Mutated HSPG Binding Site Fails to Increase LDL Cholesterol Levels

Wild-type PCSK9 and HSPG-binding mutants of PCSK9 are over-expressed in mouse livers by hydrodynamic tail injection of expression plasmids free of CG dinucleotides (Invivogen); these plasmids exhibit long term expression as compared to conventional plasmids that are prone to inactivation by methylation of CG base pairs. Over-expression of wild-type PCSK9 induces enhanced degradation of LDLR, resulting in elevated serum LDL cholesterol and thereby behaving as a “gain of function” variant. The HSPG mutants of PCSK9 behave as “loss of function” variants giving rise to less elevated serum LDL cholesterol levels due to reduced degradation of the LDL receptor.

The results demonstrate the pivotal role of the PCSK9 HSPG-binding domain for the degradation of the LDL receptor in animals.

Example 21: Structure-Based Drug Design of Small Molecule PCSK9 Inhibitors Based on the Interaction of PCSK9 with Heparin and Heparin Mimetics

Candidate compounds selected among low molecular weight heparins and heparin mimetics are tested for their ability to inhibit PCSK9 function and increase LDLR levels in a HepG2 cell culture assay. The heparin analogue fondaparinux (trade name Arixtra) is used as the reference compound. The structural information obtained is used to derive 3-5 pharmacophore models, which are used to screen an existing database of 3 million purchasable compounds. A diversity-based collection of 50 compounds is selected for functional testing in HepG2 cells. Successful inhibitors facilitate calibration of the molecular docking model and a second screening of purchasable compounds. Fifty compounds are selected for purchase and in vitro testing. The three most promising candidates are subsequently tested in a mouse model to evaluate in vivo effect on LDLR levels in the liver and cholesterol in plasma.

Example 22: Testing of PCSK9 Inhibitor Candidates

Preclinical testing of PCSK9 inhibitor candidates is performed using a coronary artery disease mouse model heterozygote for LDLR (LDLR+/−) with expression of human PCSK9 under control of the endogenous murine PCSK9 promoter. Western type diet fed animals is treated with PCSK9 inhibitors for a time period of 6-8 months, before evaluation of atherosclerotic plaque area by microscopy after oil red 0 staining of fat deposits in dissected aorta. The plasma concentration of cholesterol is assessed by ELISA every second month during the experiment.

These studies will allow evaluation of the ability of PCSK9 inhibitor candidates to lower serum cholesterol.

Example 23: Suramin Protects LDLR from PCSK9-Induced Degradation

Suramin belongs to the class of non-carbonhydrate-based sulphated heparin mimetics and show overlapping binding site with heparin in a structural model of its complex with thrombin (Lima et al., 2009). The PCSK9 inhibitory effect of overnight incubation with suramin (0-200 μg/ml) was tested in HepG2 cells (FIG. 9 A-B). The LDLR level was 15 times up regulated in cells with the highest tested concentration of suramin (200 μg/ml), suggesting that suramin potently protects the LDLR from PCSK9 induced degradation.

Example 24: Effect of Suramin on Liver LDLR Levels

In vivo testing of suramin is performed with mice on Western-type diet subjected and with mice that were not subjected to a Western-type diet to a single intravenous administration (tail vein) of 5-20 μg human recombinant PCSK9 alone or in combination with 50-200 μg suramin. Groups of 5-7 mice are sacrificed to evaluate liver LDLR levels (1 hour post injection) by Western blot analysis and plasma LDL-c (7 hours post injection) by ELISA.

These studies will confirm that administration of suramin leads to increased LDLR levels in vivo.

Example 25: Dextran Sulphate and Pentosan Protect LDLR from PCSK9-Induced Degradation

In the heparin mimetic class of modified polysaccharides compounds dextran sulfate (FIG. 9 A-B) and pentosan (FIG. 9 D-E) were tested in a HepG2 based in vitro cell assay. After overnight incubation LDLR levels were evaluated by Western blotting showing a concentration dependent increase of LDLR upon treatment with dextran sulfate (0-200 μg/ml) with up to 3-fold up regulation of LDLR. Pentosan (0-200 μg/ml) incubation resulted in 4 fold increase LDLR at concentrations from 50 μg/ml.

Example 26: Effect on Pentosan on Liver LDLR Levels

Pentosan-polysulfate is injected into mice expressing human PCSK9 to evaluate the ability of the substance to protect the LDLR against PCSK9 induced degradation.

These studies will confirm that administration of pentosan leads to increased LDLR levels in vivo.

Example 27: Effect of Pentosan on Serum Cholesterol Levels

Patients with elevated serum cholesterol are treated with oral or subcutaneous injection of Pentosan-polysulfate to evaluate the ability of the substance to lower serum cholesterol. Pentosan-polysulfate is absorbed from the digestive tract with a median of 2 hours after ingestion of an oral dose according to the manufacturer. Cholesterol levels are then measured.

These studies will confirm that pentosan leads to decreased serum cholesterol levels.

Example 28: The Phosphorothioate Oligonucleotide S-dC-36 Protects LDLR from PCSK9-Induced Degradation

HepG2 cells incubated with oligonucleotide s-dC-36 (0.5-5.0 μM) (FIG. 9 I-J) showed increased levels of cellular LDLR protein (2-fold increase at 5.0 μM S-dC-36). S-dC-36 belongs the heparin mimetic class of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides, and the data suggests that S-dC-36 efficiently protects the LDLR from PCSK9 induced degradation.

Example 29: Determination of Optimal Length of Phosphorothioate Oligonucleotide for LDLR Protection

Phosphorothioate oligonucleotides bind to heparin binding proteins and inhibit their functions. The ability of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides to bind nonspecifically to a variety of proteins has been well documented (Yakubov et al, 1993; Stein 1995). Antisense phosphorothioate oligonucleotides are normally designed to have the complementary base sequence for binding the target mRNA specifically and thereby induce degradation of the mRNA.

The optimum length of the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide for binding to PCSK9 and thereby protecting the LDLR from degradation is determined in cell culture assays using the HepG2 cell line. The base sequence of the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is chosen in order to have minimal effect on gene expression in variety of cell lines and tissues.

Example 30: Effect of Optimized Phosphorothioate Oligonucleotide on LDLR Protection

An optimized phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is injected into mice expressing human PCSK9 to evaluate the ability of the substance to protect the LDLR against PCSK9 induced degradation.

Example 31: Effect of Optimized Phosphorothioate Oligonucleotide on Serum Cholesterol Levels

An optimized phosphorothioate oligonucleotide is injected into patients having elevated serum cholesterol to evaluate the ability of the substance to lower serum cholesterol.

Example 32: Effect of Mipomersen on LDLR Levels

HepG2 cells are incubated with Mipomersen to evaluate the ability of the substance to increase levels of the LDLR. Mipomersen is an apoB100 antisense modified phosphorothioate oligonucleotide and cholesterol-reducing drug. It is an antisense therapeutic that targets the messenger RNA for apolipoprotein B100. It is administered as a weekly injection for familial hypercholesterolemia.

These studies will show that Mipomersen leads to increased LDLR levels.

Example 33

ApoE−/− mice treated with suramin or PPDAS (pyridoxal-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2′-4′-disulphonic acid) are tested for up regulation of liver LDLR levels. Suramin and PPDAS have been reported to reduce plaque size in apoE−/− mice (Guns et al., 2009).

Example 34

ApoE−/− mice treated with suramin are tested for up regulation of liver LDLR levels. Suramin has been reported to reduce plaque size in apoE−/− mice (Guns et al., 2009).

Example 36

In contrast to ATP, the P2Y6-selective agonist UDP increases mRNA expression and activity of inducible nitric oxide synthase and interleukin-6 in J774 macrophages; this effect is blocked by suramin (100-300 mM) or pyridoxal-phosphate-6-azophenyl-2′-4′-disulphonic acid (PPADS, 10-30 mM). Finally, 4-week treatment of cholesterol-fed apoE−/− mice with suramin or PPADS (50 and 25 mg·kg-1·day-1 respectively) reduces plaque size, without changing plaque composition (relative SMC and macrophage content) or cell replication.

Example 37

The in vivo effect of mAb 5E11 is tested in 10-12 week-old male BALB6/cJRj mice. Mice are injected intravenously (tail vein) with 0.9% saline (vehicle control) or PCSK9 (10 μg) with or without 5E11 (50-250 ug). In one experiment mice are harvested 1 hour after injection and liver LDLR levels are evaluated by Western blotting. In a parallel experiment mice are injected with a comparable amount of 1:1 mixture of 5E11 and and antibody directed against the LDL receptor binding site in PCSK9 to evaluate the effect of PCSK9 inhibition targeting both the LDLR and the HSPG binding site. Plasma LDL-c concentrations are evaluated by ELISA at specific time points following injection. Similar experiments are carried out using mAb 8H4.

Sequences SEQ ID NO: 1: PCSK9 protein-NCBI accession number: NG_009061.1 MGTVSSRRSWWPLPLLLLLLLLLGPAGARAQEDEDG DYEELVLALRSEEDGLAEAPEHGTTATFHRCAKDP WRLPGTYVVVLKEETHLSQSERTARRLQAQAARRG YLTKILHVFHGLLPGFLVKMSGDLLELALKLPHVD YIEEDSSVFAQSIPWNLERITPPRYRADEYQPPDG GSLVEVYLLDTSIQSDHREIEGRVMVTDFENVPEE DGTRFHRQASKCDSHGTHLAGVVSGRDAGVAKGAS MRSLRVLNCQGKGTVSGTLIGLEFIRKSQLVQPVG PLWLLPLAGGYSRVLNAACQRLARAGVVLVTAAGN FRDDACLYSPASAPEVITVGATNAQDQPVTLGTLG TNFGRCVDLFAPGEDIIGASSDCSTCFVSQSGTSQ AAAHVAGIAAMMLSAEPELTLAELRQRLIHFSAKD VINEAWFPEDQRVLTPNLVAALPPSTHGAGWQLFC RTVWSAHSGPTRMATAVARCAPDEELLSCSSFSRS GKRRGERMEAQGGKLVCRAHNAFGGEGVYAIARCC LLPQANCSVHTAPPAEASMGTRVHCHQQGHVLTGC SSHWEVEDLGTHKPPVLRPRGQPNQCVGHREASIH ASCCHAPGLECKVKEHGIPAPQEQVTVACEEGWTL TGCSALPGTSHVLGAYAVDNTCWRSRDVSTTGSTS EGAVTAVAICCRSRHLAQASQELQ* SEQ ID NO: 2 (3), 4 (5), 6 (7) and 8 (9) were obtained by sequencing of the variable regions of the immunoglobulin genes expressed by rat hybridomas BNT-8H4-B8/C7-E11, BNT-5E11-D4/G1-E4, as indicated. SEQ ID NO: 2: BNT-8H4-B8/C7-E11_VK DNA gatattgtga tgacccagtc tccctcactc ctgtctgcat ctgtgggaga cagagtcact cttagctgca aaggaagtca gaatattaac aattacttag cctggtacca acaaaagctc ggagaagctc ccaaactcct gatctataat acaaacagtt tacaaacggg catcccatca aggttcagtg gcagtggatc tggtacagat tgcacactca ccatcagaag cctgcagcct gaagatgttg ccacatattt ctgctatcag tataacaacg ggaacacgtt tggaggtggg accaagctgg agctgaaa LOCUS BNT-8H4-B8/C7-E11_VK 318 bp DNA linear Location/ FEATURES Qualifiers J_segment 289.318 /label = JK V_region 1  69.264 /label = FWR3 V_region 103.147 /label = FWR2 V_region   1.69 /label = FWR1 V_segment  70.102 /label = CDR1 V_segment 148.168 /label = CDR2 V_segment 265.288 /label = CDR3 CDS   1.318 /label = VK SEQ ID NO: 3: BNT-8H4-B8/C7-E11_VK DNA DIVMTQSPSLLSASVGDRVTLSCKGSQNINNYLAW YQQKLGEAPKLLIYNTNSLQTGIPSRFSGSGSGTD CTLTIRSLQPEDVATYFCYQYNNGNTFGGGTKLEL K SEQ ID NO: 4: BNT-5E11-D4/G1-E4_VK DNA gatgttgtgt tgacacaaac tccagttttc ctgtctgtca cacttggaga tcagacttct atatcttgta ggtctagtca gagtctggaa tatagtgatg gatacactta tttggaatgg tacctacaga aaccgggcca gtctccacag ctcctcatct atgaagtttc caaccgattt tctggggtcc cagacaggtt cattggcagt gggtcaggga cagatttcac cctcaagatc agcagagtag agcctgagga cttgggagtt tattactgct tccaaggtac acatgatcct ctcacgttcg gttctgggac caagctggag atcaaa LOCUS BNT-5E11-D4/G1-E4_VK 336 bp DNA linear Location/ FEATURES Qualifiers J_segment 307.336 /label = JK V_region 184.279 /label = FWR3 V_region 118.162 /label = FWR2 V_region   1.69 /label = FWR1 V_segment  70.117 /label = CDR1 V_segment 163.183 /label = CDR2 V_segment 280.306 /label = CDR3 CDS   1.336 /label = VK SEQ ID NO: 5: BNT-5E11-D4/G1-E4_VK protein DWLTQTPVFLSVTLGDQTSISCRSSQSLEYSDGYT YLEWYLQKPGQSPQLLIYEVSNRFSGVPDRFIGSG SGTDFTLKISRVEPEDLGVYYCFQGTHDPLTFGSG TKLEIK SEQ ID NO: 6: BNT-5E11-D4/G1-E4_VH DNA LOCUS BNT-5E11-D4/G1-E4_VH 336 bp DNA linear Location/ FEATURES Qualifiers J_segment 304.336 /label = JH V_region 199.294 /label = FWR3 V_region 109.150 /label = FWR2 V_region   1.90 /label = FWR1 V_segment  91.108 /label = CDR1 V_segment 151.198 /label = CDR2 V_segment 295.303 /label = CDR3 CDS   1.336 /label = VH gaggtgcagc tgcaggagtc aggacctggc cttgtgaaac cttcacagtc actctccctc acctgttctg tcactggtta caccattacc agtggttatg attggagctg gatccggagg ttcccaggaa atacaatgga gtggatggga gacataagtt acagtggtag cactaactac aacccatcgc tcaaaagtcg agtctccatt acaagagaca catccaagaa tcagttcttc ctgcagttga actctgtaac tactggggat acagccacat attactgtgc aaaactaccc ggctggggcc aaggcactct ggtcactgtc tcttca SEQ ID NO: 7: BNT-5E11-D4/G1-E4_VH protein EVQLQESGPGLVKPSQSLSLTCSVTGYTITSGYDW SWIRRFPGNTMEWMGDISYSGSTNYNPSLKSRVSI TRDTSKNQFFLQLNSVTTGDTATYYCAKLPGWGQG TLVTVSS SEQ ID NO: 8: BNT-8H4-B8/C7-E11_VH DNA LOCUS BNT-8H4-B8/C7-E11_VH 354 bp DNA linear 9 Mar. 2016 Location/ FEATURES Qualifiers J_segment 322.354 /label = JH V_region 202.297 /label = FWR3 V_region 112.153 /label = FWR2 V_region   1.90 /label = FWR1 V_segment  91.111 /label = CDR1 V_segment 154.201 /label = CDR2 V_segment 298.321 /label = CDR3 CDS   1.354 /label = VH caggttactc tgaaagagtc tggccctggg atattgcagc cttcccagac cctcagtctg acttgctctt tctctgggtt ttcactgagc agttcaggta tatgtgtgag ctggattcgt cagccttcag ggaagggtct ggagtggctg gcaactattt gttgggagga tagtaagggc tacaaccctt ctctgaagaa ccggctcacg atctccaagg acacctccaa caaccaagca ctcctcagga tcaccagtgt ggacactgca gataccgcca tttactactg tgctcgggtt tattactggt actttgactt ctggggccca ggaaccatgg tcaccgtgtc ctca SEQ ID NO: 9: BNT-8H4-B8/C7-E11_VH protein QVTLKESGPGILQPSQTLSLTCSFSGFSLSSSG ICVSWIRQPSGKGLEWLATICWEDSKGYNPSLK NRLTISKDTSNNQALLRITSVDTADTAIYYCAR VYYWYFDFWGPGTMVTVSS SEQ ID NO: 10-CDR1 of SEQ ID NO: 7 SGYDWS SEQ ID NO: 11-CDR2 of SEQ ID NO: 7 DISYSGSTNY NPSLKS SEQ ID NO: 12-CDR3 of SEQ ID NO: 7 LPG SEQ ID NO: 13-CDR1 of SEQ ID NO: 5 RSSQSLEYSD GYTYLE SEQ ID NO: 14-CDR2 of SEQ ID NO: 5 EVSNRFS SEQ ID NO: 15-CDR3 of SEQ ID NO: 5 FQGTHDPLT SEQ ID NO: 16-CDR1 of SEQ ID NO: 9 SSGICVS SEQ ID NO: 17-CDR2 of SEQ ID NO: 9 TICWEDSKGY NPSLKN SEQ ID NO: 18-CDR3 of SEQ ID NO: 9 VYYWYFDF SEQ ID NO: 19-CDR1 of SEQ ID NO: 3 KGSQNINNYLA SEQ ID NO: 20-CDR2 of SEQ ID NO: 3 NTNSLQT SEQ ID NO: 21-CDR2 of SEQ ID NO: 3 YQYNNGNT

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1. A compound capable of inhibiting binding of heparan sulfate proteoglycan receptors (HSPGs) to PCSK9.
 2. The compound according to claim 1, wherein said compound specifically recognises and binds a region within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1) that comprises at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), such as at least one of amino acid residues 78 to 92, such as at least one of amino acid residues 93 to 97, such as at least one of amino acid residues 98 to 103, such as at least one of amino acid residues 104 to 105, such as at least one of amino acid residues 106 to 135, such as at least one of amino acid residues 136 to 139, such as at least one of amino acid residues 140 to 164, such as at least one of amino acid residues 165 to 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).
 3. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein said compound binds to one or more amino acids selected from the group consisting of R93, R96, R97, R104, R105, K136, H139, R165 and R167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).
 4. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein said compound binds to at least one, such as to at least two, such as to at least three, such as to at least four, such as to at least five, such as to all six of R93, R96, R97, R104, R105 and H139 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).
 5. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein said compound is an antibody or functional equivalent thereof.
 6. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims wherein said compound is a monoclonal antibody.
 7. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody or functional equivalent thereof is a murine monoclonal antibody.
 8. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody or functional equivalent thereof has been humanised.
 9. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the functional equivalent of said antibody comprises an antigen-binding fragment of said antibody which is capable of binding to the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).
 10. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the fragment is selected from the group consisting of Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)₂ and Fv fragments.
 11. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody is a single chain antibody.
 12. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody or functional equivalent thereof specifically recognises and binds an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1) that comprises at least one of amino acid residues 93, 96, 97, 104, 105, 136, 139, 165 or 167 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), such as an epitope comprising at least one, such as at least two, such as at least three, such as at least four, such as at least five, such as all six of amino acid residues 93, 96, 97, 104, 105 and 139 of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).
 13. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises: (i) a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as defined by SEQ ID NO: 10, SEQ ID NO: 11 or SEQ ID NO: 12, and (ii) a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as defined by SEQ ID NO: 13, SEQ ID NO: 14 or SEQ ID NO:
 15. 14. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO: 7 and/or a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO: 5,
 15. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises: (i) a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as defined by SEQ ID NO: 16, SEQ ID NO: 17 or SEQ ID NO: 18, and (ii) a light chain variable region comprising or a humanized version thereof, comprising at least one of the three CDRs as defined by SEQ ID NO: 19, SEQ ID NO: 20 or SEQ ID NO:
 21. 16. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof comprises a heavy chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO: 9 and/or a light chain variable region or a humanized version thereof as defined by SEQ ID NO:
 3. 17. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody is constructed by domain shuffling.
 18. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody is an antibody variant.
 19. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody variant has been modified to increase half-life, stability, solubility, and/or bioavailability.
 20. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody variant comprises engineered intradomain disulphide bonds.
 21. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein one or more Fv fragment comprises a peptide linker between the V_(H) and the V_(L) domains.
 22. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein binding of the antibody to PCSK9 results in reduced binding of PCSK9 to LDLR compared to the binding in the absence of said antibody.
 23. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody is further capable of recognising and binding a region within the LDLR binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), wherein said region comprises at least one of residues 194 or 367-381 of PCSK9.
 24. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein binding of the antibody to PCSK9 results in increased levels of LDLR of LDLR-expressing cells such as hepatocytes compared to the levels in the absence of said antibody.
 25. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein binding of the antibody to PCSK9 results in decreased lysosomal degradation of LDLR compared to the degradation in the absence of said antibody.
 26. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein binding of the antibody to PCSK9 results in decreased plasma levels of LDL-C compared to the levels in the absence of said antibody.
 27. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plasma levels of LDL-C are determined in vitro.
 28. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the plasma levels of LDL-C are determined by Western Blot, immuno-staining, ELISA, ultracentrifugation, FPLC, or electrophoresis.
 29. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody is stable in serum.
 30. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the antibody is non-toxic after administration.
 31. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the heparin analogue is a competitive antagonist, an uncompetitive antagonist, a non-competitive antagonist, a silent antagonist, a partial agonist or an inverse agonist of HSPGs.
 32. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein said heparin analogue is heparin.
 33. The compound according to according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the heparin analogue is a peptide.
 34. The compound according to according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the heparin analogue is capable of inhibiting binding of heparin to PCSK9.
 35. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the compound is a heparin mimetic or a heparin analogue.
 36. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the compound has a general structure of formula (I):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of COOH and —O₃SO, R₂, R₃, R₅ and R₇ are selected from the group consisting of O and OH R₄ is selected from the group consisting of a sulfate group, R₆ is selected from the group consisting of a sulphamate group, OH and O, R₈ is selected from the group consisting of a sulfate group, n is an integer equal or greater than 1, and wherein R₂ and/or R₇ optionally can act as linkers linking monomer units.
 37. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the compound of formula (I) is a) Fondaparinux and has the formula:

b) a low molecular weight heparin such as dalteparin sodium or tinzaparin sodium; and c) a compound of formula (II):

wherein R₉ and R₁₀ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, COOH, —O₃SO, O, OH, sulfate and sulfamate, wherein n is an integer equal to or greater than
 1. 38. The compound of claim 37, wherein the compound of formula (II) is pentosan and has the formula:

where n is an integer equal to or greater than
 1. 39. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the compound has a general structure of formula (III):

wherein R₁₁, R₁₂, R₁₃, R₁₄, R₁₅, R₁₆, R₁₇, R₁₈, and R₁₉ are independently selected from the group consisting of COOH, —O₃SO, O, OH, sulfate and sulfamate, and n is an integer equal to or greater than 1, and wherein R14 optionally can act as linkers linking monomer units.
 40. The compound according to claim 39, wherein the compound is dextran sulphate and has the formula:

wherein n is an integer equal to or greater than
 1. 41. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the compound is suramin and has the formula:


42. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the compound is a phosphorothioate oligonucleotide S-dNn, where n is the number of phosphorothioate linkages in said phosphorothioate oligonucleotide.
 43. The compound according to claim 42, wherein n is between 12 and
 60. 44. The compound according to claim 43, wherein n is between 15 and 55, such as between 20 and 50, such as between 25 and 45, such as between 30 and 40, such as
 36. 45. The compound according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein said compound is not capable of binding to the LDLR-binding domain of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1).
 46. Use of the compound as defined in any one of the preceding claims for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism.
 47. A compound according to any one of claims 1 to 45 for use as a medicament.
 48. A compound according to any one of claims 1 to 45 for use in a method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism in a subject in need thereof.
 49. The compound for the use according to claim 48, wherein the disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is linked to abnormal levels of LDL-C, such as elevated levels of LDL-C.
 50. The compound for the use according to any one of claims 48 to 49, wherein the disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is linked to abnormal PCSK9 plasma levels and/or abnormal LDLR levels of LDLR-expressing cells such as hepatocytes.
 51. The compound for the use according to any one of claims 48 to 50, wherein the disorder of lipoprotein metabolism is selected from the group consisting of dyslipidemia, hypercholesterolemia and coronary heart diseases.
 52. The compound for the use according to any one of claims 48 to 51, wherein the treatment is prophylactic.
 53. The compound for the use according to any one of claims 48 to 52, wherein the subject is a mammal.
 54. The compound for the use according to any one of claims 48 to 53, wherein the mammal is a human.
 55. A method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising administering to said subject a compound as defined in any one of claims 1 to
 45. 56. The method according to claim 49, wherein the compound is administered at a daily dosage of between 0.1 mg and 1000 mg per kg bodyweight.
 57. A method of treatment of a disorder of lipoprotein metabolism such as dyslipidemia, hypercholesterolemia and heart coronary diseases in an individual in need thereof, the method comprising the steps of: i. providing a tissue sample or a plasma sample isolated from said individual, ii. determining the levels of LDLR of said tissue and/or the levels of PCSK9 and/or the levels of LDL-C in said plasma sample, iii. correlating the expression level of step ii) with the levels of a control tissue sample or a control plasma sample, iv. assessing a treatment regime, v. administering to the individual a composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of a compound as defined in any one of claims 1 to
 45. 58. A method of inhibiting degradation of LDLR, said method comprising administering a compound as defined in any one of claims 1 to 45 or a pharmaceutical composition as defined in any one of claims 59 to
 69. 59. A pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one compound as defined in any one of claims 1 to
 45. 60. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 59, wherein said composition further comprises at least one of a statin or an anti-PCK9 antibody, such as an antibody binding to the LDLR-binding site of PCSK9.
 61. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 60, wherein said composition further comprises at least one further compound, such as a compound selected from the group consisting of lodelcizumab, ralpancizumab, alirocumab, evolocumab and bococizumab
 62. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 61, wherein the composition further comprises at least one of: an antibody inhibiting binding of PCSK9 to LDLR; a statin; cholestyramine; ezetimibe.
 63. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 62, further comprising one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients.
 64. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 63, wherein the pH of the composition is between pH 4 and pH
 10. 65. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 64, wherein the composition is formulated for oral administration.
 66. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 65, wherein the composition is formulated for parenteral administration.
 67. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 64 or 66, wherein the parenteral administration is by injection.
 68. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 64 or 66 to 67, wherein the parenteral administration is intravenous, intramuscular, intraspinal, intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, a bolus or a continuous administration.
 69. The pharmaceutical composition according to any one of claims 59 to 68, wherein the compound is administered at a daily dosage of between 0.1 mg and 1000 mg per kg bodyweight.
 70. A method of selecting an antibody specifically recognising and binding an epitope within the HSPG binding site of PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1), said method comprising the steps of: i. administering to a mammal a polypeptide fragment of PCSK9 or a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide fragment of PCSK9 comprising at least one amino acid residue of the domain consisting of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO: 1, such as at least 5, such as at least 10, such as at least 15, such as at least 20, such as at least 25, such as at least 30, such as at least 35, such as at least 40, such as at least 45, such as at least 50, such as at least 55, such as at least 60, such as at least 65, such as at least 70, such as at least 75, such as at least 80, such as at least all amino acids of the domain consisting of amino acid residues 78 to 167 of SEQ ID NO: 1; ii. identifying and selecting antibodies recognising said polypeptide, and iii. determining whether said selected antibodies are capable of displacing one or more reference antibodies in a competitive ELISA assay.
 71. The method according to claim 70, wherein the method further comprises a step of selecting antibodies capable of displacing at least one of said reference antibodies.
 72. The method according to any one of claims 70 to 71, wherein the step of determining whether said selected antibodies are capable of displacing one or more reference antibodies in a competitive ELISA comprises the steps of: i. providing PCSK9 or a fragment thereof comprising the epitope recognised by said reference antibody; and ii. adding a test antibody and said reference antibody to said PCSK9 or fragment thereof, wherein either the test antibody or the reference antibody is labelled with a detectable label or both antibodies are labelled with different detectable labels; and iii. detecting the presence of the detectable label at PCSK9; thereby detecting whether the test antibody is capable of displacing the reference antibody.
 73. The method according to any one of claims 70 to 72, wherein the method further comprises testing the antibodies to determine whether said antibody is capable of inhibiting LDLR degradation and selecting antibodies capable of inhibiting LDLR degradation.
 74. A method of selecting a peptide or a heparin analogue capable of inhibiting binding of HSPGs such as heparin to PCSK9, said method comprising the steps of: i. providing a plurality of peptides or heparin analogues; ii. incubating said plurality of peptides or heparin analogues with cells derived from an LDLR-expressing cell line such as a hepatocyte-derived cell line in a medium; iii. determining the levels of PCSK9 in said medium and/or the levels of LDLR of said cells; iv. selecting the peptides or heparin analogues resulting in the highest levels of PCSK9 and/or LDLR as determined in step iii.
 75. A compound capable of selectively binding the compound as defined in any one of claims 1 to
 45. 76. The compound according to claim 75, wherein said compound is an antibody.
 77. A method for producing the antibody as defined in any one of claims 1 to 45, said method comprising the steps of: i. administering to a mammal a protein or a polynucleotide encoding a protein comprising the HSPG binding domain of PCSK9 or a fragment thereof or a functional equivalent thereof; ii. selecting said antibody if it is able to bind to PCSK9 (SEQ ID NO: 1); iii. selecting said antibody if it is unable to bind to mutated PCSK9, wherein said mutated PCSK9 is unable to bind to HSPG.
 78. The method according to claim 77, wherein the mutated PCSK9 is mutated at position 93, 96, 97, 104, 105, 136, 139, 165 or
 167. 79. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 78, wherein the mutated PCSK9 is mutated at positions 93, 96, 97, 104, 105 and
 139. 80. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 79, wherein the mutated PCSK9 is selected from the group consisting of mutants R93A, R96A, R97A, R104A, R105A, K136A, H139A, R165A or R167A.
 81. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 80, wherein the mutated PCSK9 is a R93A, R96A, R97A, R104A, R105A, R39A mutant.
 82. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 81, wherein the mammal is a rodent.
 83. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 82, wherein the method further comprises isolating antibody producing cells from said mammal, preparing hybridoma cells from said antibody producing cells, cultivating said hybridomas and isolating antibodies produced by said hybridomas.
 84. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 83, wherein said compound is an antibody according to any one of the preceding claims, and wherein said method comprises the steps of transfecting a host cell with a nucleic acid construct encoding said antibody.
 85. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 84, wherein the antibody is produced by a recombinant cell.
 86. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 85, wherein the recombinant cell is a microorganism selected from the group comprising bacteria and eukaryotic microorganisms.
 87. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 86, wherein the microorganism is a bacterium selected from the group comprising Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus zeae, Bacillus subtilis, Streptomyces lividans, Staphylococcus carnosus, Bacillus megaterium and Corynebacterium glutamicum.
 88. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 87, wherein the microorganism is a eukaryotic microorganism selected from the group comprising Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, Pichia pastoris, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Yarrowia lipolytica and Kluyveromyces lactis.
 89. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 88, wherein the host cell is selected from the group comprising plant cells and animal cells.
 90. The method according to claim 89, wherein the plant cell is selected from the group comprising Arabidopsis sp., pea, rice, maize, tobacco, barley, or seeds thereof.
 91. The method according to claim 89, wherein the animal cell is derived from a mammal selected from the group comprising Chinese Hamster Ovary, mouse and human.
 92. The method according to claim 89, wherein the animal cell is derived from an insect or an avian cell line.
 93. The method according to any one of claims 77 to 92, further comprising the steps of identifying and selecting the antibody.
 94. A method for reducing plasma LDL-C levels in a subject in need thereof, said method comprising the step of administering to said subject a compound as defined in any one of claims 1 to 45 or a pharmaceutical composition as defined in any one of claims 59 to
 69. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein said subject does not respond to statin treatment. 